GIFT    OF 
JANE  K.SATHER 


x^ 


THE  SYNTAX  of  HIGH-SCHOOL  LATIN 


THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CHICAGO  PRESS 
CHICAGO,  ILLINOIS 


THE  BAKER  &  TAYLOR  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK 

THE  CAMBRIDGE  UNIVERSITY  PRESS 

LONDON  AND  EDINBURGH 

THE  MARUZEN-KABUSHIKI-KAISHA 

TOKYO,  OSAKA,  KYOTO,  FUKUOKA,  8ENDAI 

THE  MISSION  BOOK  COMPANY 

SHANGHAI 


THE  SYNTAX 

OF 

HIGH-SCHOOL  LATIN 

A  CO-OPERATIVE  STUDY  BY  FIFTY  COLLABORATORS 


EDITED  BY 

LEE  BYRNE 

Principal  of  Mobile  (Alabama)  High  School 


REVISED  EDITION 


THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CHICAGO  PRESS 
CHICAGO,  ILLINOIS 


COPYRIGHT  1909  AND  1918  BY 
THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CHICAGO 


All  Rights  Reserved 


Published  August  1909 

Second  Impression  January  1914 

Revised  Edition  August  1918 

^  cT/Tn    j 


Composed  and  Printed  By 

The  University  of  Chicago  Press 

Chicago,  Illinois,  U.S.A. 


COLLABORATORS 

Virginia  Alexander,  West  High  School,  Washington,  D.  C. 

E.  H.  Atherton,  Girls'  Latin  School,  Boston 

A.  B.  Babbitt,  DeLancey  School,  Philadelphia 

Florence  Backus,  Keokuk  High  School,  Iowa 

A.  E.  Bartlett,  Central  High  School,  Detroit 

Fred  O.  Bates,  Central  High  School,  Detroit 

Augusta  J.  Boone,  Meriden  High  School,  Connecticut 

Louise  M.  Breitenbach,  Detroit  Home  and  Day  School 

Letta  Brock,  Champaign  High  School,  Illinois 

Lee  Byrne,  Mobile  High  School,  Alabama 

H.  D.  Cannon,  Male  High  School,  Louisville 

W.  L.  Carr,  University  High  School,  Chicago 

Olive  B.  Catlin,  Girls'  High  School,  Louisville 

John  Charles,  Wichita  High  School,  Kansas 

Emma  K.  Clark,  Girls'  High  School,  Brooklyn 

C.  C.  Cobb,  Marshall  High  School,  Chicago 

W.  F.  Dales,  Central  High  School,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Mildred  Dean,  Central  High  School,  Washington,  D.  C 

Alice  M.  Donnelly,  Woodward  High  School,  Cincinnati 

Netcie  Fillmore,  Woodward  High  School,  Cincinnati 

E.  L.  Findley,  East  High  School,  Cleveland 

Mary  R.  Fitzpatrick,  East  Division  High  School,  Brooklyn 

E.  W.  Given,  Newark  Academy,  New  Jersey 

J.  F.  Hall,  Tempe  Normal  School,  Arizona 

A.  Z.  Hartman,  Baltimore  City  College 

W.  L.  Hartman,  Perkiomen  Seminary,  Penrisburg,  Pennsylvania 

J.  C.  Hazzard,  Portland  Academy,  Oregon 

Mabel  C.  Hawes,  Central  High  School,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Kate  Healy,  Fort  Dodge  High  School,  Iowa 

W.  W.  King,  Newark  High  School,  New  Jersey 

Myra  E.  Matthews,  Orange  High  School,  New  Jersey 

C.  J.  Mendelsohn,  College  of  the  City  of  New  York 

Mary  L.  Miner,  East  High  School,  Detroit 

A.  Muntsch,  St.  Louis  University 

E.  W.  Murray,  University  of  Kansas 

Elizabeth  M.  Perkins,  Vassar  College 

John  A.  Peters,  Central  High  School,  Detroit 

J.  L.  Phillips,  Phillips  Academy,  Andover,  Massachusetts 

Henry  Preble,  Harvard  University 


vi  COLLABORATORS 

A.  S.  Rainey,  Central  High  School,  Washington,  B.C. 

Cornelia  M.  Raymond,  Vassar  College 

Lizzie  C.  Smith,  Wendell  Phillips  High  School,  Chicago 

Zina  D.  Snyder,  Central  High  School,  Minneapolis 

Roland  H.  Tanner,  Illinois  College,  Jacksonville 

H.  F.  Taylor,  New  Rochelle  High  School,  New  York 

A.  T.  Walker,  University  of  Kansas 

Grace  M.  Warner,  Moline  High  School,  Illinois 

G.  A.  Whipple,  Evanston  High  School,  Illinois 

Martha  Whitney,  University  of  Kansas 

Julia  E.  Winslow,  Girls'  High  School,  Brooklyn 


PREFACE 

This  investigation  is  a  contribution,  not  to  Latin  studies,  but 
to  scientific  procedure  in  the  field  of  education.  It  aims  to  furnish 
a  scientific  basis  for  the  determination  of  part  of  the  curriculum 
material  in  high-school  Latin.  It  is  not  fundamental  or  primary 
in  the  sense  that  some  recent  educational  studies  are,  such  as 
Charters,  A  Course  of  Study  in  Grammar  Based  upon  the  Gram- 
matical Errors  of  School  Children  of  Kansas  City,  Mo.1  Charters' 
study  may  be  said  to  be  fundamental,  because  it  shows  that  there 
is  a  social  need  for  the  teaching  and  learning  of  English  grammar, 
and  proceeds  by  scientific  methods  to  determine  for  what  material 
an  actual  social  need  exists.  Our  study  is  of  a  secondary  character, 
because  we  do  not  show  that  there  is  a  social  need  for  the  study 
of  Latin;  we  start  with  the  assumption  that  Latin  is  extensively 
studied,  and  try  to  show  how  the  activity  can  be  carried  on  with 
greater  economy  of  time  and  greater  efficiency  in  results.  We  do 
not  even  show  that  Caesar,  Cicero,  and  Vergil  constitute  the  best 
reading,  but  make  the  additional  assumption  that  these  authors 
are  very  widely  used;  then  we  employ  scientific  procedure  to 
establish  a  basis  for  the  selection  and  arrangement  of  an  important 
division  of  the  curriculum  material,  viz.,  the  topics  of  syntax. 
The  methods  employed  would  be  equally  applicable  to  any  other 
readings. 

The  joint  authors  of  the  work  recognize  that  it  has  serious 
limitations  if  viewed  as  a  philological  study;  in  fact,  very  few  of 
the  collaborators  are  professed  students  of  Latin  syntax;  they  are 
merely  hard-working  teachers  of  Latin  bent  on  making  Latin 
teaching  more  economical  and  effective.  From  the  point  of  view 
of  statistical  method  which  aims  to  ascertain  main  tendencies  and 
important  divergences  rather  than  minute  differences  there  need 
be  no  question  that  the  results  have  a  sufficiently  high  reliability 
to  serve  the  educational  purposes  for  which  they  are  intended. 

1  Bulletin,  Education  Series  No.  9,  University  of  Missouri,  Columbia,  Mo.,  1915; 
out  of  print. 


viii  PREFACE 

In  fact,  a  great  deal  of  labor  could  have  been  saved  by  merely 
making  a  careful  "sampling"  of  the  texts  and  estimating  the 
relative  frequencies  of  constructions  on  this  basis.  It  was  felt, 
however,  that  the  uprooting  of  conservatism,  tradition,  and  in- 
difference in  syntax  teaching  could  not  be  expected  to  result  from 
any  demonstration  short  of  a  complete  enumeration.  To  be  sure, 
some  errors  must  have  occurred  in  making  50,000  judgments. 
Moreover,  some  constructions  are  capable  of  more  than  one  inter- 
pretation. But  these  facts  do  not  appreciably  modify  the  essen- 
tials of  the  situation  as  to  saving  and  waste,  arrangement  and 
emphasis.  The  chief  topics  omitted  from  the  count  are  principles 
of  agreement  (including  appositional  and  predicate  construction), 
uses  of  pronouns,  meanings  of  tenses,  and  word  order. 

The  book  aims  to  do  for  syntax  what  Professor  Lodge's 
Vocabulary  of  High  School  Latin1  does  for  vocabulary,  furnishing 
in  conjunction  with  the  latter  work,  it  is  hoped,  a  scientific  basis 
for  selection  and  arrangement  of  linguistic  material  in  the  high- 
school  Latin  curriculum. 

All  references  are  to  the  Teubner  texts  of  the  authors.  Meusel's 
text  of  Caesar  was  originally  employed,  but  the  numbers  were  later 
changed  to  those  of  Teubner,  as  the  text  likely  to  be  in  the  hands  of 
most  teachers. 

We  have  used  freely Heynacher's  Sprachgebrauch  Caesars,  and  his 
Beitrage  zur  zeitgemdssen  Behandlung  der  lateinischen  Grammatik; 
Holder's  index  to  Caesar;  Meusel's  Lexicon  Caesarianum;  Merguet's 
Lexicon  to  Cicero's  Orations;  Lodge's  Vocabulary  of  High  School 
Latin,  and  his  Helps  for  the  Teaching  of  Caesar,  including  W.  F. 
Little's  Studies  in  the  Syntax  of  Caesar's  "Gallic  War"-,  Walker's 
Sequence  of  Tenses  in  Latin;  and  various  articles.  Most  useful 
has  been  Heynacher's  Sprachgebrauch.  Special  thanks  are  due  to 
Mr.  W.  L.  Carr,  of  the  University  High  School,  Chicago,  and  Mr. 
H.  F.  Taylor,  of  the  High  School,  New  Rochelle,  N.Y.,  who,  being 
engaged  upon  collections  of  their  own,  have  given  us  much  help  in 
several  places.  Mr.  E.  S.  Armstrong,  of  Central  High  School  has 
kindly  read  the  proofs.  Mr.  H.  F.  Pratt  of  the  commercial  depart- 
ment has  verified  numerical  computations. 

1  Published  by  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  New  York,  N.Y. 


PREFACE  ix 

The  list  of  individual  contributions  by  subjects  is  as  follows: 

Nominative  and  Vocative:  B.  G.  i  and  ii,  J.  L.  Phillips;  iii  and  iv, 
W.  L.  Carr;  Cat.  i-iv,  H.  F.  Taylor;  Pomp,  and  Arch.,TL.  Preble; 
Aen.  i  and  ii,  C.  C.  Cobb;  iii  and  iv,  Nettie  Fillmore;  v  and  vi,  L. 
Byrne. 

Genitive:  B.  G.  i  and  ii,  J.  L.  Phillips;  iii  and  iv,  W.  L.  Carr; 
Cat.  i-iv,  H.  F.  Taylor;  Pomp,  and  Arch.,  H.  Preble;  Vergil,  J.  C. 
Hazzard. 

Dative:  B.  G.  i  and  ii,  J.  L.  Phillips;  iii  and  iv,  W.  L.  Carr;  Cat. 
i-iii  and  Aen.  i-iii,  W.  L.  Hartman;  Cat.  iv,  H.  F.  Taylor;  Pomp., 
H.  Preble  and  A.  E.  Bartlett;  Arch.,  Elizabeth  M.  Perkins  and 
A.  E.  Bartlett;  Aen.  iv,  Nettie  Fillmore;  v,  J.  Charles;  vi,  C.  C. 
Cobb. 

Accusative:  B.  G.  i  and  ii,  J.  L.  Phillips;  iii  and  iv,  W.  L.  Carr; 
Cat.  i-iii  and  Aen.  i-iii,  W.  L.  Hartman;  Cat.  iv,  Pomp.,  and  Arch., 
and  Aen.  iv-vi,  A-.  Muntsch. 

Ablative  and  Locative:  B.  G.  i  and  ii,  J.  L.  Phillips;  iii  and  iv, 
W.  L.  Carr;  Cat.  i-iv,  H.  F.  Taylor;  Pomp.,  Arch.,  and  Aen.  v,  vi, 
H.  Preble;  Aen.  i-iv,  L.  Byrne. 

Tenses:  Caesar,  A.  T.  Walker;  Cicero,  Martha  Whitney  and 
A.  T.  Walker;  Vergil,  E.  W.  Murray  and  A.  T.  Walker. 

Independent  Clauses:  Caesar,  W.  L.  Carr  and  L.  Byrne;  Cat.  i 
and  Arch.,  Kate  Healy;  Cat.  ii-iv,  Cornelia  Raymond;  Pomp. 
and  Arch.,  Augusta  J.  Boone;  Aen.  i-iv,  Elizabeth  M.  Perkins;  v, 
J.  A.  Peters;  vi,  Mabel  C.  Hawes. 

Substantive  Clauses:  Caesar,  W.  L.  Carr  and  L.  Byrne;  Cat.  i, 
Pomp.,  and  Aen.  i-v,  A.  E.  Bartlett;  Cat.  ii-iv  and  Arch.,  Mary  L. 
Miner;  Aen.  vi,  Elizabeth  M.  Perkins. 

Relative  Clauses:  Caesar,  W.  L.  Carr  and  L.  Byrne;  Cicero,  J.  F. 
Hall;  Aen.  i,  ii,  iv,  v,  Mary  R.  Fitzpatrick;  ii,  v,  vi,  W.  F.  Dales;  iii, 
E.  H.  Atherton;  iv,  W.  W.  King. 

Adverbial  Clauses — Miscellaneous:  B.  G.  i,  iii,  iv,  W.  L.  Carr  and 
L.  Byrne;  ii  and  Pomp.,  G.  A.  Whipple;  Cat.  i,  ii,  iv,  and  Arch., 
A.  B.  Babbitt;  Cat.  iii,  Virginia  Alexander;  Vergil,  Elizabeth  M. 
Perkins. 

Purpose  and  Result:  B.  G.  i,  Letta  Brock;  ii-iv,  W.  L.  Carr  and 
L.  Byrne;  Cat.  i,  ii,  iv,  Pomp.,  and  Arch.,  Emma  K.  Clark;  Cat.  iii, 


PREFACE 


Mildred  Dean;  Aen.  i,  Florence  Backus;  i-v,  A.  Z.  Hartman;  vi, 
H.  D.  Cannon. 

Cww-Clauses:  Caesar,  W.  L.  Carr  and  L.  Byrne;  Cat.  i-iv,  C.  C. 
Cobb;  Pomp,  and  Arch.,  Julia  E.  Winslow;  Vergil,  J.  Charles. 

Time  and  Proviso:  Caesar,  W.  L.  Carr  and  L.  Byrne;  Cat.  i,  iii, 
Iv,  Pomp.,  and  Arch.,  Louise  M.  Breitenbach;  Cat.  ii,  E.  L.  Firidley; 
Vergil,  Alice  M.  Donnelly. 

Cause  and  Concession:  B.  G.  i,  iii,  iv,  W.  L.  Carr  and  L.  Byrne: 
ii,  Grace  M.  Warner;  Cat.  i,  ii,  iv,  A.  B.  Babbitt;  iii,  Zina  D.  Snyder; 
Pomp.,  Arch.,  and  Aen.  ii,  iv,  E.  W.  Given;  Aen.  i,  iii,  R.  H.  Tanner; 
v,  vi,  Olive  B.  Catlin. 

Conditions  and  Comparison:  Caesar,  W.  L.  Carr  and  L.  Byrne; 
Cat.  i,  iii,  iv,  Pomp.,  Arch.,  and  Aen.  ii,  Lizzie  C.  Smith;  Cat.  ii,  F.  O. 
Bates;  Aen.  i,  iii,  iv,  vi,  Nettie  Fillmore;  v,  A.  S.  Rainey. 

Infinitives,  Participles,  Gerund,  and  Supine:  L.  Byrne. 


NOTE  ON  REVISED  EDITION 

This  revision  has  given  an  opportunity  to  bring  the  terminology 
into  closer  harmony  with  that  of  the  Report  of  the  Joint  Committee  on 
Grammatical  Nomenclature.  Advantage  has  been  taken  of  the  pub- 
lished criticisms  of  the  first  edition  to  make  a  number  of  corrections  and 
improvements;  I  refer  particularly  to  Professor  Hale's  review  in  the 
April,  1910,  School  Review.  Professor  Hale  has  also  been  kind  enough 
to  make  a  number  of  other  suggestions  personally,  but  he  is  in  no  way 
responsible  for  the  defects  in  plan  or  execution  which  still  appear.  The 
body  of  statistics  remains  substantially  as  in  the  first  edition ;  the  "  text " 
of  interpretative  comment  has  been  entirely  rewritten,  and  one  new  table 
and  three  illustrative  diagrams  have  been  introduced.  Thanks  are  due 
Professor  F.  N.  Freeman  for  criticizing  the  analysis  of  the  reading  process. 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

INTRODUCTION        .      ... i 

Why  an  Investigation  of  This  Kind  Is  Needed I 

Why  Syntax  Is  Studied       .  . '   .       . 2 

The  Nature  of  the  Reading  Process 5 

What  Syntax  Should  Be  Studied 12 

THE  STATISTICS  or  SYNTAX  IN  HIGH-SCHOOL  LATIN 13 

Detailed  Statistics  of  Constructions  and  Their  Occurrences  .  .  14 

Explanation  of  Categories  Employed;  Further  Notes  on  Usage  .  19 

THE  USE  OF  STATISTICAL  EVIDENCE  IN  CURRICULUM-MAKING  ...  26 

The  Bearing  of  Statistics  on  the  Selection  of  Material  .  .  .  26 
The  Bearing  of  Statistics  on  the  Amount  of  Material  .  .  .  .31 

The  Bearing  of  Statistics  on  the  Arrangement  of  Material  ...  34 

ILLUSTRATIVE  EXAMPLES  CLASSIFIED  UNDER  GRAMMATICAL  HEADINGS  41 

THE  SAME  EXAMPLES  IN  THEIR  ORDER  OF  OCCURRENCE  IN  THE  TEXTS  51 


INTRODUCTION 
WHY  AN  INVESTIGATION  OF  THIS  KIND  IS  NEEDED 

The  teaching  of  Latin  syntax  in  high  schools  has  ordinarily  been 
uncritical  and  dependent  on  unquestioned  acceptance  of  tradition. 
This  is  true  as  regards  the  amount  of  syntax  taught,  the  common  idea 
being  that  a  very  large  portion  of  the  material  which  has  been  organized 
into  recognized  categories  in  books  on  grammar  must  be  assimilated  by 
pupils  of  high-school  age;  that  Latin  study  cannot  reach  a  successful 
issue  unless  this  is  done.  A  good  illustration  of  this  attitude  is  found 
in  the  case  of  many  teachers  who,  after  once  being  induced  to  employ 
one  of  the  briefer  grammars  for  high-school  work,  later  insist  on  a  return 
to  one  of  the  larger  books  and  the  rejection  of  a  short  grammar  on  the 
ground  that  it  contains  insufficient  material  to  meet  the  needs  of  high- 
school  teaching. 

Uncritical  procedure  is  shown  also  in  particular  selection  of  topics. 
Not  only  are  very  rare  subjects  treated  at  length,  but  in  some  cases 
subjects  which  occur  nowhere  at  all  in  high-school  reading.  And  the 
situation  is  similar  as  regards  unintelligent  arrangement  of  material. 
Topics  which  an  investigation  would  show  ought  not  to  be  taught  earlier 
than  the  third  year,  so  that  they  might  be  taken  up  at  the  time  when 
there  is  an  actual  need  of  them,  are,  in  fact,  included  in  the  work  of  the 
second  year  or  the  first  year,  and  for  no  known  or  ascertainable  reason. 

Such  unscientific  hit  or  miss  might  be  explained  in  the  case  of  high- 
school  teaching  by  attributing  it  to  the  low  grade  of  ability  and  the 
insufficient  training  of  a  part  of  the  teaching  population.  But  until 
recently  even  graver  defects  seem  to  have  been  present  in  the  work  of  the 
more  expert  few  who  prepare  our  college-entrance  examination  papers. 

Commenting  on  these,  Professor  Hale  points  out  numerous  instances 
in  which  the  examinations  call  for  words  and  constructions  that  are  rare 
or  even  unknown  in  the  high-school  reading.  He  sums  up  by  saying: 
"We  have  found  them  to  be,  as  a  whole,  not  very  carefully  planned 
....  they  call  for  words  that  are  not  common,  and  constructions  that 
are  not  common,  and  they  leave  many  common  constructions  uncalled 
for."1 

1  "Latin  Composition  in  the  High  School,"  School  Review,  XVIII  (April,  1910), 
240;  231  ff. 


2  .:  ^  ^SYNTAX  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  LATIN 

However,  the  more  recent  college-entrance  examination  papers  are 
not  open  to  these  objections;  in  the  questions  of  1911  to  1915  the 
subject-matter  appears  to  be  in  conformity  with  the  suggestions  of  this 
book,  except  that  knowledge  of  the  different  forms  of  conditional  sen- 
tences is  assumed  in  the  second  year.1 

Now  the  chief  criticism  of  Latin  and  Greek  studies  is  not  that  they 
are  without  value ;  it  would  be  a  rash  critic  who  would  deny  value  to 
Latin  or  in  fact  to  any  subject  in  the  curriculum.  The  main  charge 
is  that  they  are  too  costly,  and  more  specifically  that  the  process  of 
teaching  them  is  inefficient  and  wasteful.  Viscount  Bryce  says  that 

"languages  in  general  have  too  often  been  badly  taught The 

results  have  accordingly  been  disappointing  and  out  of  proportion  to  the 
time  and  labor  spent."2 

Keller  in  his  paper  on  "The  Case  of  Greek"  says,  "The  comparative 
cost  is  exorbitant  and  well-nigh  prohibitive.  The  vital  question  is: 
Can  it  be  lowered  ?  .  .  .  .  That  which  is  most  in  the  eyes  of  adverse  opin- 
ion ....  is  ....  the  unnecessary  and  unessential."3  And  President 
Butler,  while  advocating  classical  studies,  alludes  in  his  Function  of  the 
Secondary  School  to  "bad  and  wasteful  methods  of  classical  teaching, 
much  of  it  done  under  the  guise  of  thoroughness." 

Scientific  examination  and  evaluation  of  the  materials  of  instruction 
readily  show  us  how  we  can  eliminate  waste,  reduce  exorbitant  cost,  and 
promote  efficiency.  Professor  Lodge's  Vocabulary  reveals  that  42  per 
cent  of  the  words  are  used  93  f$  per  cent  of  the  time,  so  that  by  concen- 
trating on  these  words  we  may  presumably  accomplish  93 T5^  per  cent  of 
certain  results  with  42  per  cent  of  the  labor  and  time  that  would  be 
expended  in  ordinary  undirected  effort.  It  is  with  a  view  to  the  pos- 
sibility of  similar  savings  in  the  field  of  grammar  study  that  this  book 
has  been  prepared. 

WHY  SYNTAX  IS  STUDIED 

Before  proceeding  to  the  examination  of  the  syntax  material  it  is 
desirable  to  set  forth  briefly  the  reasons  why  syntax  should  be  studied 
at  all — the  real  aims  in  studying  it.  And  as  a  preliminary  to  this  we 
naturally  come  upon  the  inquiry  as  to  what  are  the  aims  of  Latin  study 

1  Examination  Questions  in  Latin  and  Greek,  1911-15,  College  Entrance  Examina- 
tion Board,  pp.  20,  21,  22. 

2  The  Worth  of  Ancient  Literature  to  the  Modern  World,  p.  4. 

3  Atlantic  Monthly,  June,  1908. 


INTRODUCTION  3 

itself,  both  the  study  considered  generally  and  the  study  on  the  high- 
school  plane. 

I  doubt  that  we  are  prepared  to  accept  any  stereotyped  and  uniform 
statement  of  the  aims  of  classical  studies,  but  some  denning  of  aims  we 
must  have  if  we  are  to  arrive  anywhere.  In  a  subject  in  which  broad 
•and  spiritual  values  are  among  the  ultimate  motives  it  may  be  best  to 
enumerate  a  number  of  aims  and  to  try  to  organize  these  coherently 
rather  than  to  limit  our  recognized  purpose  to  a  narrow  pathway,  as 
might  be  done  in  the  case  of  a  vocational  subject.  Somewhere  in  the 
organized  plurality  of  aims  each  one  may  find  those  which  seem  largest 
to  him.  Hence  I  venture  the  following  as  a  rather  wide,  inclusive  list 
of  the  aims  of  Latin  study  in  general;  the  supposition  is  that  high-school 
Latin  study  shares  in  some  or  all  of  these  aims  either  immediately  or 
indirectly : 

1 .  To  come  into  intimate  touch  with  the  life  and  civilization  of  what 
we  call  the  ancient  world,  more  strictly  the  Graeco-Roman  world.     This 
may  be  conceived  as  worth  while  from  two  points  of  view: 

a)  For  purposes  of  comparison  the  Graeco-Roman  world  represents 
that  civilization  immediately  preceding  our  own,  and  although  we  know 
of  others,  e.g.,  in  Egypt,  in  the  Tigris-Euphrates  Valley,  in  the  Aegean 
are'a,  in  India,  and  in  China,  it  is  the  only  other  one  indigenous  to  the 
West,  known  to  us  in  plentiful  detail,  and  capable  of  first-hand  study 
by  any  but  specialists.     Its  remains  are  literally  strewn  at  our  feet,  and 
the  educated  of  all  ages  have  known  something  of  it,  even  though  they 
gave  it  no  deliberate  study. 

b)  As  a  basis  for  understanding  the  genesis  of  our  present  civiliza- 
tion we  naturally  go  back   to   that   empire   which,   fallen   and   dis- 
membered, has  been  the  substratum  from  which  the  modern  nations 
have  arisen. 

2.  First-hand  introduction  to  the  literature  of  this  ancient  world: 

a)  For  its  intrinsic  value.     This  would  apply  in  higher  degree  to 
Greek,  perhaps,  but  no  one  denies  that  the  Latin  product  is  one  of  the 
great  literatures.     It  may  be  noted  in  passing  that  one  who  studies 
Latin  literature  alone  intercepts  much  that  is  Greek,  for  Greece  is  the 
main  source  of  Latin  culture  on  the  aesthetic  side. 

b)  For  its  relation  to  modern  literatures.     Anyone  desiring  more 
than  a  superficial  acquaintance  with  one  or  more  modern  literatures  is 
under  the  necessity  of  giving  some  attention  to  the  Greek  and  Latin 
literatures  which  have  so  profoundly  influenced  them. 

3.  To  contribute  to  one's  knowledge  of  other  languages: 


4  SYNTAX  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  LATIN 

a)  Especially  the  mother-tongue  itself.     Since  over  half  the  English 
vocabulary  is  Latin  it  is  evident  that  proper  study  of  the  Latin  element 
is  capable  of  greatly  enriching  one's  appreciation  of  his  native  speech. 

b)  Also  as  a  contribution  to  the  understanding  of  the  Romance 
languages. 

c)  As  an  influence  on  language  sense  and  grasp  of  language  prin- 
ciples in  general.     This  value  can  be  realized  in  connection  with  the 
study  of  any  foreign  language,  but  perhaps  best  in  that  of  a  language 
which  is  highly  inflected.     In  this  respect  Greek  and  Sanskrit  would  be 
superior. 

Some  will  feel  lonesome  without  adding  a  fourth  aim — "Disciplinary 
values."  Personally  I  should  not  do  so.  The  fact  that  these  have  been 
so  frequently  stressed  has  unfortunately  served  to  obscure  or  conceal 
the  cultural  value  of  the  study  and  its  largest  and  most  vital  significance. 
If  any  subject  has  worth  as  a  discipline,  so  much  the  better;  but  no  one 
can  justify  the  inclusion  of  a  study  in  the  curriculum  on  disciplinary 
grounds  alone,  because  it  would  obviously  be  more  profitable  to  teach  a 
valuable  subject  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  it  good  discipline  than  to  teach 
an  otherwise  valueless  one  for  the  sake  of  the  resulting  discipline.  Hence 
the  values  inherent  in  the  content  of  a  study  are  ordinarily  the  ones 
which  should  be  stressed  and  on  the  basis  of  which  a  subject  should  be 
selected  or  rejected. 

I  shall  not  attempt  to  demonstrate  how  far  the  aims  mentioned  really 
apply  to  the  high-school  Latin  situation.  It  would  take  more  space  and 
exact  knowledge  than  I  have  available.  It  will  serve  the  purpose  at  hand 
if  I  proceed  to  the  question  as  to  what  is  the  central  and  unifying  aim 
which  may  serve  as  the  means  of  correlating  and  organizing  the  different 
classes  of  aims  enumerated.  I  think  few  will  seriously  dispute  that  this 
central  aim  is  to  be  found  in  learning  to  read  and  in  reading  the  Latin 
itself;  I  mean  this  in  a  broad  way  to  include  the  process  which  is,  in  a 
strict  sense,  reading,  that  is,  reading  the  Latin  as  Latin,  just  as  one  reads 
an  English  book  as  English,  and  also  to  include  the  process  which  some 
say  is  all  that  we  can  ever  attain,  the  turning  of  the  Latin  into  English 
through  translation.  Both  are  methods  of  deriving  meaning  from 
original  Latin  texts,  and  I  need  not  here  stop  to  debate  their  relative 
merits.  Whether  either  one  or  both  of  these  methods  are  employed,  the 
learning  to  read  and  the  reading  act  constitute  the  fundamental  and 
central  process;  to  perform  this  act  successfully  is  our  central  aim,  with 
which  we  connect  our  other  aims,  according  to  our  present  conception  of 
Latin  study.  We  use  original  text  rather  than  ready-made  translation, 


INTRODUCTION  5 

because  we  thereby  get  a  more  intimate  contact  with  the  ancient  world, 
with  ancient  literature,  with  the  language  itself,  with  our  own  language. 
It  is  because  reading  is  the  central  aim  that  we  have  been  willing  to  pay 
the  undeniably  high  price  of  its  acquisition.  That  it  is  the  central  aim 
needs  no  further  argument  than  to  point  out  that  if  reading  with  its 
corollaries  and  consequences  is  not  the  chief  aim  we  are  making  a  colossal 
blunder  in  spending  so  much  time,  energy,  and  money  in  its  pursuit. 

The  place  of  syntax  in  the  educational  plan  is  simply  and  wholly 
subsidiary  to  that  of  reading.  Absence  of -clearly  denned  aim  has  often 
resulted  in  allowing  syntax  to  usurp  the  chief  place,  with  Latin  literature 
treated  merely  as  a  means  for  building  up  and  illustrating  a  complete 
system  of  grammar.  Intelligent  criticism  has  repeatedly  pointed  out 
the  error,  the  deficient  sense  of  proportion.  President  Butler  in  the 
essay  already  quoted  asserts  that  "  wearisome  grammatical  drill  and 
tedious  reiteration  of  details  relatively  of  little  value,  save  in  so  far  as 
these  are  absolutely  necessary  to  enable  the  pupil  to  read  intelligently, 
are  out  of  place  in  secondary  education."  Viscount  Bryce  says  that 
"  the  despotism  of  a  purely  grammatical  study  of  the  ancient  languages 
and  authors  needed  to  be  overthrown."1  Syntax  is  studied  because  the 
reading  process,  from  its  nature,  depends  upon,  and  involves  the  use  of, 
vocabulary  and  syntax. 

We  may  next  consider  briefly  the  relation  of  reading  ability  to  the 
knowledge  and  use  of  syntax.  To  do  this  we  need  to  observe  how  Latin 
reading  is  done.- 

THE  NATURE  OF  THE  READING  PROCESS 

At  the  outset  we  should  recognize  that  reading  is  not  a  single  fixed 
type  of  process.  Even  when  we  exclude  faulty  or  incorrect  methods 
and  restrict  it  to  legitimate  forms  of  procedure  we  find  that  there  is  some 
variety.  Reading  may  occur  at  different  levels  as  regards  the  amount 
of  previously  acquired  knowledge  of  words  and  grammar  available  for 
use.  Further  there  are  different  stages  of  reading  power  in  the  matter 
of  speed  and  facility,  and  the  process  as  carried  on  at  one  speed  is  not 
identical  with  the  process  as  carried  on  at  another.  Moreover,  the 
translating  act  is  not  the  same  as  reading  proper,  though  they  have 
important  elements  in  common. 

I  shall  first  try  to  describe  the  reading  of  a  foreign  language,  such  as 
Latin,  at  its  lowest,  or  at  least  at  a  very  low,  level.  This  description  and 

1  Op.  cil.,  p.  4. 


6  SYNTAX  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  LATIN 

those  which  follow  are  not  based  on  specific  experiment.  They  recount 
what,  in  a  general  way,  careful  examination,  in  the  absence  of  controlled 
experiment,  would  lead  us  to  believe  occurs.  At  a  low  level  we  may 
imagine  that  a  student  knows  none  of  the  foreign  words  and  none  of  the 
grammar.  He  takes  up  a  text  and  proceeds  to  read.  Some  very 
important  things  he  does  know:1  he  knows  that  he  is  dealing  with  written 
language,  with  an  inflected  language  in  which  the  inflections  as  well  as 
the  word  roots  have  meanings.  He  knows  what  language  it  is  and  the 
sources  to  which  he  can  go  to  secure  any  information  he  needs  about  the 
words  or  their  forms.  If  it  is  Latin  he  knows  the  general  significance  of 
all  the  letter  symbols.  Then  how  does  he  proceed  with  his  reading  ? 
He  takes  the  words  just  as  they  come,  one  after  the  other.  Each  word 
he  looks  up  in  a  vocabulary  or  dictionary  to  ascertain  its  possible  word 
meanings;  for  each  word  he  consults  his  grammar  to  find  out  the  pos- 
sible meanings  of  the  form  of  the  word,  that  is,  the  syntactical  meanings. 
He  does  not  decide  between  the  different  possibilities,  but  holds  judg- 
ment in  abeyance  until  further  evidence  is  found  in  the  words  that  follow. 
As  some  critical  word  is  reached  he  is  able  to  end  his  suspense,  complete 
his  judgment,  and  decide  definitely  on  the  specific  word  and  form  mean- 
ings to  be  assigned  to  this  word  and  to  all  the  words  preceding.  Such  a 
critical  word  may  be  the  last  word  in  a  sentence,  or  at  least  the  last  in 
a  clause  or  phrase ;  there  is  and  should  be  doubt  as  to  precise  meanings 
until  the  critical  word  is  reached;  many  words  become  critical  for  the 
determination  of  the  meanings  of  individual  forms  preceding,  even  if  they 
do  not  resolve  the  suspense  regarding  whole  clauses.  Of  course,  as  has 
been  noted,  the  successive  pieces  of  evidence  have  both  a  backward- 
and  a  forward-looking  influence.  A  word  may  be  critical  in  helping  to 
decide  between  possible  antecedent  meanings  held  in  suspense  to  this 
point,  and  it  may  be  critical  in  deciding  between  possible  subsequent 
meanings  when  their  symbols  are  later  reached.  Only  the  first  word  is 
limited  to  a  forward  reference,  or  perhaps  we  should  say  "forward  con- 
trol," and  only  the  final  word  to  one  that  is  backward.  When  such  a 
critical  final  word  is  reached,  it  marks  the  close  of  a  grammatical  or 
syntactical  unit,  a  unit  of  speech,  a  sentence,  or  at  least  a  "  sub-sentence," 

1  In  a  still  lower  stage  we  may  picture  the  savant  who  deciphers  a  previously 
unknown  tongue,  having  no  dictionaries  or  grammars  to  which  he  can  go,  not  knowing 
whether  it  is  an  inflected  language  or  anything  about  its  inflections  if  it  have  any,  and 
not  even  knowing  any  phonetic  or  other  significance  for  a  single  letter.  But  even  in 
such  a  case  he  knows  a  very  important  fact,  viz.,  that  he  is  dealing  with  a  language 
which  expresses  meanings. 


INTRODUCTION  7 

if  we  may  use  the  expression.  A  word  with  forward  reference  only,  or 
rather  one  which  has  no  backward  reference  (or  control),  similarly  marks 
the  beginning  of  a  speech  unit  or  sentence. 

As  we  shall  see  presently,  the  steps  in  "high-level"  reading,  provided 
it  is  slow  and  deliberate,  would  be  the  same  as  those  described  here  for 
the  low  level,  except  that  the  student  would  know  all  the  possibilities 
of  word  meaning  and  syntax  meaning  in  advance.  Instead  of  consulting 
dictionary  and  grammar  he  would  merely  resort  to  the  association  centers 
of  his  brain. 

Let  us  illustrate  by  taking  a  concrete  passage.  In  the  pro  M. 
Mar  cello  we  read: 

Quare  omnes  te,  qui  haec  salva  esse  volumus,  et  hortamur  et  obsecramur, 
ut  vitae  tuae  et  saluti  consulas,  omnesque  tibi  (lit  pro  aliis  etiam  loquar,  quod 
de  me  ipse  sentio),  quoniam  subesse  aliquid  putas,  quod  cavendum  sit,  non 
modo  excubias  et  custodias,  sed  etiam  laterum  nostrorum  oppositus  et  corporum 
pollicemur. 

It  is  evident  that  one  who  reads  the  words  in  the  order  in  which  they 
come1  will  hold  the  possible  meanings  of  omnes  in  suspense  until  he 
reaches  volumus  before  making  his  decision,  and  similarly  will  not  decide 
between  the  meanings  of  te  until  he  reaches  hortamur;  qui  will  not  be 
decided  until  reaching  volumus,  haec  until  esse,  the  first  et  until  hortamur; 
vitae  is  partially  decided  by  tuae,  more  fully  by  saluti,  and  completely 
when  consulas  is  reached;  the  second  omnes  is  not  fully  decided  until 
pollicemur;  tibi  is  not  decided  until  pollicemur,  ut  until  loquar,  quod  until 
sentio,  ipse  until  sentio,  subesse  until  putas,  quod  until  sit,  excubias  and 
custodias  until  pollicemur,  laterum  until  oppositus,  oppositus  until  pollice- 
mur. Backward  references  or  controls  are  salvo  decided  by  haec,  volumus 
by  qui,  the  second  et  by  the  first  et  and  hortamur,  tuae  by  vitae,  aliis  by 
pro,  loquar  by  ut,  me  by  de,  aliquid  by  subesse,  putas  by  quoniam,  quod  by 
aliquid,  cavendum  sit  by  quod,  nostrorum  by  laterum,  corporum  by  oppo- 
situs. 

Returning  to  our  analysis  of  reading  on  the  low  level,  we  may  dis- 
tinguish four  steps  occurring  on  meeting  any  typical  (i.e.,  medial)  word: 

A.   Looking  up 

1 .  The  possible  word  meanings 

2.  The  possible  form  meanings  (syntax) 

1  This  is  the  only  legitimate  reading,  inasmuch  as  it  is  the  author's  right,  as  an 
artist,  to  decide  the  order  in  which  his  symbols  will  be  presented  and  his  meanings 
revealed,  and  to  arrange  such  effects  of  grammatical  and  rhetorical  suspense  as  he 
desires.  See  Hale,  The  Art  of  Reading  Latin. 


8  SYNTAX  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  LATIN 

C.  Selecting  the  particular  meanings  that  seem  feasible  by  consider- 
ing the  total  import  of  the  passage  up  to  this  point 

D.  Reconsidering  or  deciding  on  doubtful  meanings  of  earlier  words 
.  and  forms  now  made  clear  by  the  evidence  presented  by  this  word. 

E.  Holding  the  final  choice  of  meanings  still  in  suspense  until  a  later 
word  or  words  furnish  the  decisive  evidence 

In  the  case  of  an  initial  word  step  D  does  not  occur,  and  we  have  only 
A,  C,  and  E ;  C  is  present  because  the  context  meaning  carried  over  from 
earlier  sentences  helps  to  eliminate  some  of  the  formal  possibilities. 
In  the  case  of  a  final  word  step  E  is  absent,  leaving  A,  C,  and  D.  The 
steps  are  not  necessarily  chronological  as  here  arranged;  apparently 
either  D  or  C  may  precede  the  other,  or  the  two  may  be  an  interrelated 
complex  with  several  reciprocal  movements. 

We  may  now  consider  the  reading  process  on  a  high  level,  in  which 
the  student  has  no  need  of  dictionary  or  grammar,  but  as  a  result  of  his 
previous  experience  already  knows  all  the  possibilities  of  word  and  form 
meaning.  We  shall  assume,  however,  at  this  point  in  the  description 
that  he  reads  slowly  and  deliberately,  one  word  at  a  time;  later  we  shall 
note  differences  involved  in  rapid  reading.  In  the  case  suggested  step 
A  disappears.  Instead  we  have  substituted: 

B.   i.  The  previous  learning  or  memorizing  of 

a)  Word  roots  in  association  with  their  meanings 

b)  Word  forms  in  association  with  their  meanings  (syntax) 

2.  The  recognition  of 

a)  Word  roots 

b)  Word  forms 

3.  The  recall  of 

a)  Associated  root  meanings 

b)  Associated  form  meanings  (syntax) 

The  other  steps,  C,  D,  and  E,  are  the  same  as  in  the  case  of  reading  on 
the  lower  level. 

Apparently  neither  A  nor  B  is  an  absolutely  essential  element  of  the 
reading  process;  either  may  be  absent  provided  one  of  the  two  is  present. 
C,  D,  and  E  are  essential  in  all  reading  so  far  as  we  have  examined  it. 
Reading  which  employs  words  and  forms  looked  up  in  reference  books  is 
entitled  to  be  called  reading,  as  well  as  that  which  employs  words  and 
forms  previously  memorized.  There  is  a  difference  in  degree,  in  facility, 
but  both  are  reading. 

The  actual  reading  of  most  students  is  neither  on  the  lower  level  nor 
on  the  high  level  as  we  have  described  them,  but  on  some  intermediate 


INTRODUCTION  9 

level  between  the  two.  The  essential  elements  C,  D,  and  E  remain  con- 
stant, while  the  A  and  B  elements  alternate;  at  times  the  student  is 
employing  what  he  has  previously  learned  of  the  word  and  form  meetings; 
at  times  his  previously  acquired  knowledge  proves  inadequate,  and  he 
goes  to  his  reference  books  for  additional  information. 

But  does  a  student  actually  exhaust  all  the  possibilities  in  the  way 
of  meanings  and  partial  meanings,  and  thus  finally  arrive  at  the  ac- 
cepted solution  ?  As  a  matter  of  fact  he  does  not  usually  do  so.  The 
description  rather  represents  the  list  of  things  he  can  do  and  some  of 
which  he  must  do — all  of  which  he  may  do  in  case  of  need.  The  number 
of  separate  inferences  made  will  vary  with  the  difficulty  of  the  material. 
It  is  when  the  real  meaning  is  obscure  and  difficult  to  reach  that  all  pos- 
sible hypotheses  are  tried  out;  in  easy  passages  the  first  surmise  may 
hold  good  to  the  end. 

It  is  important  to  note  also  that  the  student  need  not  and  does  not 
dig  out  of  a  reference  book  all  the  facts  of  meaning  which  he  needs  and 
with  which  his  previously  acquired  knowledge  fails  to  supply  him.  The 
general  context  enables  him  to  infer  many  meanings  for  which  he  has  no 
immediate  evidence;  the  same  is  true,  of  course,  in  reading  an  English 
book.  The  step  taken  here  is  not  essentially  different  from  the  C  and  D 
described  above;  it  is  still  a  selection  of  meanings  on  the  basis  of  avail- 
able evidence,  in  this  case  less  complete,  but  still  sufficient  to  serve  as 
a  clew. 

So  far  we  have  discussed  reading  on  different  levels  as  regards  the 
previously  acquired  knowledge  employed,  assuming  in  each  case  that  we 
have  to  do  with  simple  one-word-at-a-time  reading.  We  may  next  con- 
sider different  stages  as  regards  facility  or  speed.  As  a  matter  of  analysis 
the  simplest  case  is  that  in  which  the  student  dwells  on  each  word  sepa- 
rately. But  with  increasing  knowledge  and  practice,  speed  increases,  and 
some  qualitative  changes  seem  to  occur  in  addition  to  the  mere  increase 
in  amount  of  ground  covered  in  a  given  time.  Experiments  with  English 
reading,  as  is  well  known,  have  shown  that  the  rapid  reader  does  not 
dwell  on  the  separate  words,  so  far  as  his  vision  is  concerned.  It  is  well 
to  remember  that  no  matter  how  fast  he  is  he  still  reads  his  text  in 
the  order  in  which  the  author  wrote  it.  He  does  not  jump  from  the 
beginning  of  the  sentence  to  the  end,  and  then  back  to  the  middle,  as  in  a 
former  day  in  Latin  classrooms.  But  the  skilled  reader  of  English  moves 
his  eyes  in  a  series  of  forward  jumps,  and  in  each  pause  between  jumps  his 
eyes  dwell  on  a  range  of  several  words  at  one  time;  the  number  of  words 
seen  simultaneously  is,  however,  not  very  large;  even  in  the  case  of  an 


10  SYNTAX  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  LATIN 

unusually  rapid  reader  of  English  it  does  not  appear  to  be  more  than  five 
or  six  words.  The  duration  of  such  an  eye  pause  is  not  far  from  a  half- 
second,  or  in  very  rapid  reading  may  approach  one-fourth  of  a  second. 
In  the  group  of  words  seen  at  one  time  the  eye  does  not  ordinarily  move 
back  and  forth  considering  first  one  word  and  then  another ;  if  anything 
of  this  sort  occurs  it  is  an  interruption  of  the  normal  course  of  the  reading. 
The  eye  remains  stationary  during  the  brief  pause,  and  sees  no  words 
during  the  rapid  movement.  The  absence  of  back-and-forth  eye  move- 
ment during  a  pause  would  not  preclude  the  possibility  of  separate  fixa- 
tions of  attention  on  different  details  within  the  word  group.  And  in 
difficult  passages  the  ordinary  continuous  process  is  interrupted,  and  the 
eye  jumps  back  to  an  earlier  point  and  reads  the  Same  groups  again, 
sometimes  several  times,  until  apprehension  is  attained.  As  the  student 
develops  speed  in  Latin  reading  we  have  no  reason  to  doubt  that  the 
physiology  of  the  eye  movements  becomes  similar  to  that  found  in  Eng- 
lish reading,  and  that  words  come  to  be  seen  in  groups  rather  than  singly. 
In  the  nature  of  the  case  the  number  of  words  actually  seen  would  tend 
to  be  about  the  same,  but  if  the  rate  of  reading  is  slower  in  Latin  than  in 
English  the  duration  of  each  pause  tends  to  be  greater,  allowing  a  longer 
time  for  the  mind  to  assimilate  the  new  impressions  and  realize  their 
significance.  Seeing  whole  groups  of  words  at  a  time  makes  it  possible 
to  short-circuit  the  process  by  omitting  many  inferences  that  would 
follow  from  the  evidence  presented  by  the  individual  words  of  the  group 
perceived  one  at  a  time.  It  is  the  evidence  of  the  complete  group  that 
is  utilized,  though  it  is  true  that  this  may  require  some  analysis  and 
dwelling  on  separate  details.  In  the  case  of  a  novice  a  long  pause  is 
coincident  with  a  short  span;  a  beginner's  groups  consist  usually  of  a 
single  word ;  as  there  are  more  difficult  passages  in  Latin  than  in  English, 
and  in  fact  the  entire  text  may  be  difficult,  there  is  a  more  frequent  going 
back  and  starting  over,  visually  as  well  as  mentally,  as  anyone  may 
verify  from  his  own  reading. 

To  sum  up,  we  may  think  of  reading  as  proceeding  on  the  basis  of  a 
partial  previous  knowledge  of  the  words  and  syntax  involved.  On  the 
one  hand  we  should  not  ordinarily  expect  to  find  a  complete  preliminary 
acquaintance  or  a  complete  absence  of  such  knowledge.  The  reader 
does  not  jump  about  from  one  part  of  the  sentence  to  another  at  random, 
though  he  does,  when  in  difficulty,  jump  backward  and  take  a  fresh 
start.  This  backward  jump  may  be  purely  mental  in  the  case  of  a  skilled 
reader,  but  one  less  skilled  moves  his  eyes  back  as  well.  A  slow  reader 
fixes  both  vision  and  attention  on  one  word  at  a  time ;  for  a  more  skilled 


INTRODUCTION  31 

and  rapid  reader  the  visual  unit  of  progress  is  a  small  group  of  words 
rather  than  a  single  word.  The  first  large  step  in  the  procedure  is  either 
the  recognition  of  form  and  recall  of  associated  meanings,  or  else,  as  a 
substitute,  the  search  for  similar  information  in  reference  books.  The 
essential  steps  in  the  process  are  the  forming  of  hypotheses  as  to  the 
details  of  meaning,  suspense  during  the  acquiring  of  added  evidence, 
and  the  final  judgment  as  to  the  combined  and  detailed  meaning.  Not 
all  the  possible  hypotheses  are  formed  except  in  passages  of  unusual 
difficulty.  As  one  develops  skill  through  practice  he  comes  to  have 
more  or  less  of  what  the  mathematicians  call  intuition  in  the  situations 
presented  by  the  language;  he  acquires  an  adeptness  in  getting  on  the 
right  track  with  a  minimum  number  of  hypotheses,  a  minimum  of  lost 
motion.  Probably  the  practiced  reader  seldom  actually  carries  along 
in  suspense  a  series  of  parallel  interpretations  awaiting  the  critical  word ; 
rather  he  always  seizes  on  a  preferred  meaning,  tentatively  entertained, 
and  as  fast  as  new  evidence  appears  he  makes  rejections  of  the  untenable 
and  substitutions  of  corrected  meanings  so  rapidly  as  to  be  almost  if  not 
quite  unaware  of  these  swift  mental  gymnastics.  The  hypotheses  are 
in  some  cases  based  on  the  concrete  evidence  of  known  forms  and  words, 
in  some  cases  on  the  general  drift  of  the  context,  which  readily  leaps  gaps 
in  knowledge  if  these  be  not  too  wide.  The  power  to  infer  successfully 
from  incomplete  evidence  is  a  desirable  one  to  cultivate,  and  its  practice 
should  not  be  discouraged. 

I  cannot  take  space  to  describe  fully  the  translation  process  as  dis- 
tinguished from  the  reading  process.  The  two  are  not  the  same,  and 
skill  in  one  is  not  necessarily  accompanied  by  skill  in  the  other;  in  fact 
one  tends  to  inhibit  the  other.  What  they  have  in  common,  however, 
greatly  exceeds  their  divergence.  In  my  opinion  translation  should  only 
follow  reading.  The  meaning  of  a  sentence  and  its  details  should  have 
been  grasped  before  making  an  attempt  to  set  forth  the  ideas  in  English. 
It  is  an  unsound  procedure  to  begin  by  translating  portions  of  the  sen- 
tence, and  to  arrive  at  the  author's  thought  only  by  piecing  together 
the  fragments  of  English.  It  is  unsound  because  such  a  process  does 
not  involve  reading  the  Latin  at  all,  it  merely  involves  reading  some 
crude  English  phrases;  instead  of  proceeding  to  an  English  version  by 
this  method  it  would  be  preferable  to  go  at  once  to  the  Loeb  or  similar 
translations  and  secure  a  superior  rendering.  If  we  assume  that  the 
reading  process  is  to  precede  translation,  the  latter  appears  merely  as  a 
supplementary  step;  for  our  purposes  it  is  unnecessary  to  try  to  extend 
analysis  beyond  the  completion  of  the  reading  act. 


12  SYNTAX  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  LATIN 

Naturally  we  have  confined  the  discussion  of  reading  to  the  mechanics 
of  the  process.  When  reading  skill  is  developed  and  is  carried  on  without 
conscious  difficulty  it  is  possible  for  the  attention  to  be  largely  disengaged 
from  the  reading  act,  and  for  the  mind  to  be  concerned  with  the  larger 
implications  of  the  author's  thought,  with  literary  appreciation,  and  with 
historical  speculation.  But  all  this  is  obviously  dependent  on  the 
ability  to  read. 

The  analysis  of  the  reading  process  has  revealed,  I  hope,  what  part 
a  knowledge  of  syntax  plays  in  reading,  and  what  the  real  purpose  in 
studying  syntax  is.  We  find  that  knowledge  of  vocabulary  and  knowl- 
edge of  syntax  are  employed  in  essentially  the  same  way,  although  the 
types  of  meaning  conveyed  by  root  and  inflection  are  usually  different. 
If  reading  is  to  occur  there  must  be  some  acquaintance  with  syntax, 
either  acquaintance  formed  on  the  spot  or  acquaintance  previously 
gained.  We  have  seen  that  it  is  not  necessary  to  have  a  complete 
knowledge  of  words  and  constructions  before  beginning  to  read.  We 
do  not  have  this  in  the  mother-tongue,  and  yet  we  manage  to  read  suc- 
cessfully and  extensively. 

WHAT  SYNTAX  SHOULD  BE  STUDIED 

An  important  educational  question  is,  How  much  syntax  and  what 
syntax  should  be  studied  with  a  view  to  promoting  reading  power  ?  If 
we  make  a  full  study  of  all  the  grammatical  facts  it  will  completely  fill 
the  four  years  of  high-schgol  Latin  and  more,  and  will  leave  no  room  for 
reading  at  all.  It  is  then  a  nice  question  of  judgment  to  decide  the  pro- 
portion of  time  which  shall  be  given  to  studying  syntax  as  preparation 
for  reading,  and  the  proportion  which  shall  be  devoted  to  the  reading 
itself;  a  supplementary  judgment  is  needed  to  decide  what  syntax 
topics  shall  be  taken  up  in  the  time  allotted.  This  book  does  not  under- 
take to  furnish  final  answers  to  these  questions,  but  it  does  aim  to  give 
an  exposition  of  the  facts  of  frequency  in  syntax  usage  so  that  any  Latin 
department  can  formulate  its  own  answer  on  a  basis  of  scientific  pro- 
decure  rather  than  of  random  guesswork  or  mere  chance. 


THE  STATISTICS  OF  SYNTAX  IN  HIGH-SCHOOL 

LATIN 

If  we  wish  to  get  the  facts  which  will  enable  us  to  judge  intelligently 
as  to  the  amount  of  syntax  to  be  studied,  the  topics  to  be  included,  and 
their  arrangement,  we  must  investigate  by  statistical  methods  the 
relative  and  absolute  frequency  of  occurrence  of  the  different  construc- 
tions. Table  I  presents  the  results  of  such  an  investigation. 


SYNTAX  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  LATIN 


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SYNTAX  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  LATIN 


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SYNTAX  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  LATIN 


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.s  .s 

EXPLANATION  OF  CATEGORIES  19 

EXPLANATION  OF  CATEGORIES   EMPLOYED; 
FURTHER  NOTES  ON  USAGE 

Genitive.  Subjective  is  included  with  possessive.  Appositional  is  in- 
cluded with  Material ;  if  listed  separately  it  would  probably  fall  in  the  class  of 
rare  constructions  recommended  for  omission.  Descriptive  includes  Measure. 
Predicate  genitives  fall  under  other  categories.  Genitives  with  verbs  are 
grouped  as  follows:  those  with  verbs  of  remembering  and  forgetting;  with 
admoneo,  commoneo,  commonefacio;  with  verbs  of  accusing,  convicting,  con- 
demning, and  acquitting;  with  miser  et,  paenitet,  piget,  pudet,  taedet;  with 
interest  and  refert;  with  verbs  of  plenty  and  want;  with  potior. 

Dative.  Reference  includes  Ethical  and  Separation.  Ethical  if  listed  sepa- 
rately would  fall  into  the  category  of  rare  constructions.  Double  dative  is 
listed  under  Purpose.  With  Direction  are  listed  other  poetical  constructions, 
as  with  verbs  of  contention. 

Accusative.  Almost  the  only  adverbial  accusatives  in  Caesar  are  multum 
and  nihil,  so  that  it  might  be  well  to  postpone  the  construction  to  the  third 
year.  Two  accusatives  here  include  three  groups :  those  with  verbs  of  making, 
choosing,  calling,  regarding,  showing;  those  with  verbs  of  asking,  demanding, 
teaching,  and  concealing;  those  with  compound  verbs.  Limit  without  a  prepo- 
sition occurs  only  eleven  times  in  Caesar.  The  figures  for  accusative  with 
preposition  do  not  include  the  numerous  accusatives  of  limit. 

Ablative.  Separation  and  Place  Whence  are  grouped  together.  Material 
is  listed  with  Source.  Way  by  Which  is  included  under  Means;  Ablatives 
with  opus  est,  fretus,  and  nitor  are  counted  with  Means,  but  their  occurrences 
are  rare  in  high-school  prose:  opus  est,  Caesar  i,  Cicero  o;  fretus,  Caesar  i, 
Cicero  3;  nitor,  Caesar  2,  Cicero  o.  Means  does  not  include  ablatives  with 
utor,  fruor,  etc.  Attendant  Circumstances  is  put  with  Manner;  Accordance 
with  Respect.  Ablative  with  preposition  does  not  include  those  listed  under 
the  various  other  heads. 

Tenses,  figures  for  indicative  sequence  are  given  for  comparison.  The 
totals  given  for  indicative  sequence  and  for  regular  subjunctive  sequence  in 
Caesar  are  those  of  seven  books. 

In  estimating  the  number  of  exceptions  to  the  rule  of  sequence,  it  would 
be  possible  to  swell  the  totals  far  beyond  those  given,  especially  by  counting 
the  instances  of  repraesentatio,  as  Heynacher  has  done  in  his  Sprachgebrauch 
Caesars  im  "Bellum  Gallicum";  it  is  necessary,  therefore,  to  state  the  principles 
that  have  been  observed  in  the  work  on  tenses. 

i.  The  instances  of  repraesentatio  (A.-G.  585,  b,  note;  B.  318,  though  the 
name  is  not  used)  have  not  been  collected  unless  the  repraesentatio  has  pre- 
served a  subjunctive  exception  of  the  direct  form.  The  same  desire  for  vivid- 
ness which  leads  Caesar  to  use  the  historical  present  leads  him  also  to  retain 
in  many  passages  the  present  or  perfect  which  was  used  by  the  speaker,  instead 
of  the  more  sober  imperfect  or  pluperfect  which  the  rule  of  sequence  demands. 
Repraesentatio  is  no  more  exceptional  than  the  historical  present.  Yet  when 


20  SYNTAX  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  LATIN 

the  same  phenomenon  occurs  in  indirect  questions,  the  instances  have  been 
counted  as  exceptions,  because  the  grammars  do  not  recognize  the  fact  that 
repraesentatio  may  occur  in  indirect  questions. 

2.  No  account  has  been  taken  of  the  varying  sequence  after  historical 
presents.     The  primary  sequence  is  the  more  common,  but  neither  is  an  excep- 
tion.    Possibly  arceret,  Aen.  i.  300,  should  be  counted  as  an  exception,  because 
the  historical  present,  demittit,  has  already  been  followed  by  a  present,  pateant. 

3.  The  most  difficult  cases  to  decide  are  those  in  which  the  main  verb  is  a 
perfect  which  we  feel  as  a  present  perfect.     The  Romans,  having  but  one  form 
for  the  present  perfect  and  the  historical  perfect,'  did  not  discriminate  sharply 
between  the  two  meanings  which  are  so  distinct  to  us.     It  is  a  recognized  fact 
that  the  perfect  is  usually  followed  by  the  secondary  sequence,  even  when  we 
translate  by  "have";   though,  of  course,  it  may  be  followed  by  the  primary; 
A.-G.  485,  a;  B.  268,  i.     In  collecting  these  examples  neither  the  primary  nor 
the  secondary  sequence  has  been  considered  an  exception  after  such  a  perfect, 
but  for  one  striking  instance,  see  B.  G.  iv.  i,  10. 

Tenses  in  Result  Clauses:  Allen  and  Greenough,  485,  c,  reads, 
"In  clauses  of  result,  the  perfect  subjunctive  is  regularly  (the  present  rarely) 
used  after  secondary  tenses."  Presumably  the  revisers  intended  to  say  only 
that  the  perfect  subjunctive  in  result  clauses  after  secondary  tenses  is  more 
common  than  any  other  exception  to  sequence;  though  it  is  difficult  to  under- 
stand why  they  changed  "very  often,"  of  the  former  edition,  to  "regularly." 
The  truth  of  their  present  statement  may  be  tested  by  the  following  statistics: 
In  the  seven  books  of  the  Gallic  War,  we  have  found  but  9  perfects  in  clauses 
of  result  following  secondary  tenses;  while  Heynacher,  though  apparently 
counting  the  occurrences  of  the  construction  rather  than  the  individual  verbs, 
finds  112  instances  of  the  imperfect  following  secondary  tenses.  In  the  entire 
body  of  Cicero's  orations,  Mrs.  Nellie  King  Cureton,  a  student  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  Kansas,  found  but  61  perfects  in  clauses  of  result  following  secondary 
tenses,  as  against  403  imperfects.  The  details  of  irregular  result  sequence  in 
the  limited  texts  are:  perfect  indicative  followed  by  perfect  subjunctive, 
Caesar  i,  Cicero  4;  perfect  infinitive  (indirect  discourse)  followed  by  perfect 
subjunctive,  Caesar  2;  perfect  indicative  and  present  subjunctive,  Cicero  5, 
miscellaneous,  Caesar  i,  Cicero  i. 

Independent  Clauses.     Hortatory,  Jussive,  etc.,  are  listed  as  Volitive. 

Deliberative,  following  common  practice,  is  used  rather  freely  for 
subjunctives  in  questions  in  independent  clauses;  many  are  strictly  subjunc- 
tives of  a  different  type,  but  distinctions  are  difficult  to  make  in  the  inter- 
rogative forms. 

Substantive  Clauses.  Ne  and  quominus  are  grouped  with  quin.  But  quin 
equivalent  to  qui  non  is  also  found  among  relative  clauses. 

Relative  Clauses.  Here  are  placed  only  clauses  used  adjectively.  So- 
called  clauses  of  Characteristic  are  designated  as  Descriptive. 

Adverbial  Clauses.  The  miscellaneous  indicative  clauses  include  those 
with  relative  adverbs. 

Purpose:  The  conjunctions  employed  in  purpose  clauses  are  as  follows, 


EXPLANATION  OF  CATEGORIES  21 

the  numbers  signifying  times  used  by  Caesar,  Cicero,  and  Vergil  respectively: 
ut,  36,  20,  14;  ne,  14,  n,  10;  quo,  7,  o,  3;  qua,  o,  o,  i;  unde,  o,  o,  2. 

Time:  The  moods  and  tenses  found  with  cum  are  as  follows:  indicative 
present,  3,  7,  24;  imperfect,  i,  u,  2;  future,  o,  5,  4;  perfect,  3,  15,  21;  pluperfect, 
4,  2,  2;  future  perfect,  o,  o,  3;  subjunctive  present,  o,  i,  o;  imperfect,  73,  25,  12; 
perfect,  o,  i,  o;  pluperfect,  53,  25,  o. 

Antequam  and  priusquam  are  listed  together.  The  moods  and  tenses  found 
with  each  are  as  follows:  antequam,  indicative  present,  o,  i,  i;  future  perfect,  o,  o,  i; 
subjunctive  present,  0,0,  2;  priusquam,  indicative  perfect,  i,  o,  2;  subjunctive 
present,  0,0,  i;  imperfect,  7,  o,  o;  perfect,  i,  o,  o;  pluperfect,  2,  o,  i. 

Dum,  donee,  quoad,  and  quam  diu  are  listed  together.  The  moods  and  tenses 
with  each  are  as  follows:  dum,  indicative  present,  7,  2,  16;  imperfect,  o,  i,  5; 
future,  o,  i,  i;  perfect,  o,  o,  2;  future  perfect,  0,0,  i;  subjunctive  present,  0,0,  i; 
imperfect,  4,  o,  2;  perfect,  i,  o,  o;  donee,  indicative  perfect,  o,  o,  6;  future,  0,0,  i; 
future  perfect,  0,0,  i;  no  verb  expressed,  0,0,  i;  quoad,  indicative  present,  o,  i,  o; 
future,  o,  i  o;  perfect,  i,  2,  o;  subjunctive  pluperfect,  i,  i,  o;  quam  diu,  indi- 
cative future,  o,  i,  o;  perfect,  o,  i,  o. 

Postquam,  ubi,  ut,  and  simul  atque  in  their  various  forms  are  listed  together. 
The  moods  and  tenses  found  with  each  are  as  follows:  postquam,  indicative 
present,  o,  o,  5;  perfect,  4,  o,  21;  posteaquam,  indicative  perfect,  2,  i,  o;  pridie- 
quam,  o;  postridiequam,  o;  ubi,  indicative  present,  i,  o,  13;  perfect,  26,  o,  24; 
pluperfect,  i,  o,  o;  future  perfect,  0,0,  5;  ubi  primum,  indicative  perfect,  i,  o,  o; 
ut,  indicative  perfect,  o,  i,  14;  pluperfect,  i,  o,  o;  ut  primum,  indicative  perfect, 
o,  i,  i;  simul  atque,  indicative  perfect,  o,  2,  i;  simul,  indicative  perfect,  i,  o,  o; 
quotienscumque,  indicative  perfect,  o,  i,  o. 

Proviso  includes  occurrences  with  dum  modo  in  Cicero,  with  modo  and  si 
modo  in  Vergil. 

Cause:  The  subjunctive  tenses  found  with  cum  follow:  present,  2,  25,  o; 
imperfect,  37,  4,  o;  perfect,  i,  5,  o;  pluperfect,  7,  o,  o. 

Quod,  quia,  quoniam,  and  quando  are  taken  together.  The  use  of  moods  with 
each  is  as  follows:  quod,  indicative,  69,  48,0;  subjunctive,  34,  16,  i;  quia,  indi- 
cative, o,  5,  5;  subjunctive,  o;  quoniam,  indicative,  o,  18,  3;  subjunctive,  5, 
0,0;  quando,  indicative,  o,  o,  5;  subjunctive,  0,0,  2. 

Concession.  Tametsi  is  listed  with  quamquar^;  with  qvamvis  are  licet,  ut, 
and  ne;  etsi  and  etiamsi  are  together.  Moods  used  with  different  concessive 
conjunctions  are  as  follows:  cum,  subjunctive  present,  i,  6,  o;  imperfect,  7,  n,  i; 
perfect,  i,  6,  o;  pluperfect,  3,  5,  o;  quamquam,  indicative,  o,  8,  3;  subjunctive, 
0,0,  i;  tametsi,  indicative,  o,  3,  o;  subjunctive,  i,  i,  o;  quamvis,  indicative, 
0,0,  i;  licet,  subjunctive,  o,  o,  3;  ut,  subjunctive,  i,  o,  o;  ne,  o;  etsi,  indicative, 
7,  o,  2;  etiamsi,  indicative,  o,  3,  o;  subjunctive,  o,  2,  o.  The  grammars  show 
considerable  variety  in  grouping  concessive  or  adversative  clauses.  Tametsi 
may  be  listed  with  the  etsi  group  without  affecting  the  arrangements  of  this  book. 

Conditions:  The  regular  types  are  not  found  in  Caesar  except  in  indirect 
discourse.  Vergil  has  the  indicative  in  8  contrary-to-fact  conditions  and  the 


22  SYNTAX  OF  HIGH -SCHOOL  LATIN 

present  subjunctive  in  5.     The  figures  for  mixed  and  irregular  conditions  are 
given  merely  for  comparison;  they  do  not  constitute  a  real  category. 

The  various  formal  combinations  in  conditional  sentences  are  as  follows: 
indicative  present  in  protasis  followed  by  indicative  present,  o,  16,  12;  by  future, 
o,  7,  8;  by  perfect,  o,  2,  2;  by  future  perfect,  o,  i,  i;  by  subjunctive  present, 
o,  7, 18;  by  imperfect,  o,  i,  o;  by  imperative,  i,  9,  21;  by  clause  with  verb  omitted, 
o,  o,  4;  indicative  imperfect  followed  by  indicative  imperfect,  i,  i,  o;  indicative 
future  with  indicative  present  following,  o,  4,  o;  with  future,  o,  5,  i;  with  sub- 
junctive present,  o,  i,  2;  indicative  perfect  with  indicative  present,  o,  6,  5;  with 
imperfect,  o,  i,  o;  with  future,  o,  i,  i;  with  perfect,  o,  i,  2;  with  subjunctive 
present,  o,  4,  2;  with  imperative,  o,  o,  6;  indicative  pluperfect  with  indicative 
imperfect,  2,  o,  o;  indicative  future  perfect  with  indicative  present,  o,  5,  o;  with 
future,  o,  19,  6;  with  future  perfect,  o,  i,  o;  with  subjunctive  present,  o,  i,  o; 
with  imperative,  o,  i,  o;  with  no  verb  expressed,  o,  3,  o;  subjunctive  present  with 
indicative  present,  o,  5,  2;  with  future,  o,  i,  2;  with  perfect,  0,0,  i;  with  sub- 
junctive present,  2,  5,  5;  with  perfect,  0,0,  i;  subjunctive  imperfect  with  indica- 
tive imperfect,  i,  o,  o;  with  perfect,  o,  i,  2;  with  subjunctive  imperfect,  8,  14,  7; 
with  pluperfect,  o,  3,  5;  with  infinitive  present,  i,  o,  o;  with  participle,  i,  o,  o; 
with  no  verb  expressed,  i,  o,  i;  subjunctive  pluperfect  with  indicative  present, 
0,0,  i;  with  imperfect,  0,0,  2;  with  perfect,  o,  o,  2;  with  pluperfect,  0,0,  2;  with 
subjunctive  imperfect,  4,  7,  4;  with  pluperfect,  o,  6,  3;  with  no  verb  expressed, 
o,  o,  2;  ablative  absolute  with  indicative  present,  o,  i,  o;  with  future,  o,  2,  o; 
with  perfect,  o,  i,  o;  with  infinitive  present,  i,  o,  o;  verb  omitted  with  indicative 
future,  o,  o,  2;  with  subjunctive  present,  0,0,  i;  with  imperative,  o,  o,  i.  It 
should  be  noted  in  these  figures  that  some  apparently  regular  combinations  are  in 
reality  mixed  forms.  Thus  a  present  subjunctive  in  conclusion  may  be  jussive, 
etc. 

Those  in  indirect  discourse  show  the  following  combinations:  indicative 
present  with  infinitive  future,  o,  o,  i;  subjunctive  present  with  subjunctive  pres- 
ent, 3,  o,  o;  with  infinitive  present,  9,  2,  o;  with  future,  6,  o,  o;  with  perfect, 
0,0,  i;  subjunctive  imperfect  with  subjunctive  imperfect,  8,  o,  o;  with  infinitive 
present,  9,  o,  o;  with  future,  6,  i,  o;  with  perfect,  i,  i,  o;  subjunctive  perfect 
with  subjunctive  present,  2,  i,  o;  with  perfect,  i,  o,  o;  with  infinitive  present. 
2,  2,  o;  with  future,  2,  3,  o;  subjunctive  pluperfect  with  subjunctive  imperfect, 
4,  o,  o;  with  infinitive  present,  2,  i,  o;  with  future,  u,  i,  2;  with  perfect,  i,  o,  o; 
with  no  verb  expressed,  o,  o,  3;  ablative  absolute  with  infinitive  present,  2,  o,  o; 
with  future,  i,  o,  o. 

The  use  of  conjunctions  in  conditional  sentences  is  as  follows,  the  same 
conjunctions  often  being  employed  with  more  than  one  verb:  si,  82,  117,  87; 
nisi,  10,  20,  2;  ni,  o,  o,  10;  sin,  i,  6,  3;  sive,  seu,  o,  2,  6;  no  conjunction,  o,  o,  i. 

Comparison:  The  one  instance  in  Caesar  is  with  velut  si;  in  Cicero  with 
quasi;  Vergil  has  veluti  5  times  (4  with  the  indicative,  i  with  verb  omitted), 
quam  si  and  subjunctive,  3,  ceu  and  indicative,  4,  subjunctive,  2,  no  verb,  2. 

Indirect   Discourse   and   Attraction,    placed   here    for   convenience 


EXPLANATION  OF  CATEGORIES  23, 

include  other  subordinate  clauses  as  well  as  adverbial.  An  example  of  Repeated 
Action  is  appended  to  Attraction. 

Infinitive.  The  category  infinitive  as  object  is  used  to  designate  cases  of 
infinitive  with  subject  accusative  used  as  object  of  verbs  like  volo,  patior,  iubeo; 
it  does  not  include  indirect  discourse.  Where  no  subject  accusative  is  introduced 
the  infinitive  is  listed  as  complementary. 

The  infinitive  is  used  as  subject  of  the  following  expressions:  est,  19,  37,  4; 
habetur,  i,  o,  o;  interest,  i,  o,  o;  licet,  9,  3,  13;  necesse  est,  2,  3,  4;  oportet,  14,  15, 
o;  opus  est,  i,  i,  o;  placet,  2,  5,  i;  praestat,  6,  o,  5;  videtur  commodissimum,  i, 
o,  o;  constat,  o,  i,  o;  convenit,  o,  2,  o;  libet,  o,  i,  o;  cerium  est,  0,0,  i;  contingit, 
0,0,2',  datur,  o,  o,  9;  decet,  o,  o,  i;  fas  est,  0,0,  14;  iuvat,  0,0,  14;  mos  est,  o,  o,  2; 
nefas  est,  o,  o,  2;  paenitet,  0,0,  i;  piget,  0,0,  i;  pudet,  0,0,  i;  sat  or  satis  est,  o, 
o,  5;  stat,  0,0,  3;  succurrit,  0,0,  i;  taedet,  0,0,  i;  tempus  est,  0,0,  2;  videtur, 
o,  o,  i. 

It  is  used  in  apposition  with  the  following  expressions:  consuetude,  2,  o,  o; 
f acinus,  2,  o,  o;  form  of  is,  3,  o,  o;  labor  or  labores,  o,  2,  i;  Ate,  o,  2,  2;  z//e, 

0,  i,  o;  amor,  o,  o,  4;   amor  et  cupido,  o,  o,  2;   animus,  o,  o,  9;   cupido,  0,0,  i; 
cwra,  o,  o,  3;  potestas,  o,  o,  2;  j/>6tf,  0,0,  i. 

It  is  used  as  a  Predicate  Noun  with:  invidia  est,  0,0,  i;  salus  (est),  0,0,  i. 

The  complementary  infinitive  is  found  with:  audeo,  13,  8,  13;  coepi,  46, 
6,  3;  cowor,  18,  9,  5;  consuesco,  23,  o,  o;  constituo,  9,  o,  4;  cw/>z0,  2,  i,  6;  debeo,  8, 
0,0;  decerno,  i,  o,  i;  desisto,  i,  2,  o;  dubito,  i,  n,  i;  gravor,  i,  o,  o;  incipio,  i, 

1,  4;  instituo,  7,  i,  o;  intermitto,  i,  o,  o;  wa/0,  2,  9,  i;  maturo,  2,  o,  o;  neglego,  i, 
o,  o;  wo/o,  3,  i,  o;  persevero,  i,  o,  o;  polliceor,  2,  o,  o;  praeopto,  i,  o,  o;  propero,  i, 

0,  3;  possum,  140,  154,  53;   statuo,  i,  o,  o;   1*0/0,  17,  34,  14;   animum  induco,  o, 

1,  o;   debeo,  o,  30,  o;    desino,  o,  8,  2;    disco,  o,  7,  3;    50/e0,  o,  9,  6;    studeo,  o,  6,  o; 
abnego,  0,0,  2;    absisto,  0,0,  i;    adgredior,  0,0,  2;    ardeo,  o,  o,  8;    cer/0,  o,  o,  5; 
contendo,  0,0,  i;    cwr0,  o,  o,  3;    exposco,  0,0,  i;    /£0J0,  o,  o,  i;    gaudeo,  0,0,  i; 
horreo,  o,  o,  i;     insequor,  o,  o,  2;     insto,  o,  o,  5;     t#-r0,  0,0,  i;    laetor,  0,0,  i; 
meditor,  0,0,  2;    memini,  o,  o,  5;   wego,  0,0,  i;     nequeo,  o,  o,  3;    0/>/0,  o,  o,  3; 
ordior,  0,0,  2;  0r0,  0,0,  i;  />arc0,  0,0,  i;  />ar0,  0,0,  12;  />er#0,  0,0,  i;  />0/w  es/ 
0,0,  i;  quaero,  0,0,  2;  queo,  0,0,  i;  recuso,  o,  o,  4;  sa0,  0,0,  2;  spero,  o,  o,  2; 
suesco,  o,  o,  4;  sufficio,  o,  o,  2;  tempto,  o,  o,  2;  tendo,  0,0,  2;    timeo,  o,  o,  2;  ^a/e0, 
o,  o,  5;  vereor,  0,0,  i. 

The  infinitive  is  used  as  the  object  of:  adsuefacio,  i,  o,  o;  C0g0,  5,  5,  7; 
desidero,  i,  o,  o;  iubeo,  57,  13,  42;  «0/0,  4,  o,  o;  patior,  8,  9,  4;  prohibeo,  4,  o,  4; 
z>0/0,  i,  o,  2;  ^0/0,  n,  18,  7;  cupio,  o,  5,  o;  imperor,  o,  3,  o;  iubeor,  o,  i,  o;  wa/0, 
o,  4,  o;  sino,  o,  i,  2;  adigo,  0,0,  i;  0g0,  0,0,  2;  concede,  o,  o,  i;  0^0,  o,  o,  8; 
0?0ce0,  0,0,  2;  facio,  0,0,  2;  hortor,  0,0,  7;  impello,  o,  o,  4;  impero  and  passive, 
0,0,  i;  0/>/0,  0,0,  2;  persuadeo,  o,  o,  2;  />0.sc0,  0,0,  i;  />roo0,  o,  o,  2;  stimulo, 
0,0,  i;  suadeo,  o,  o,  2;  stibigo,  o,  o,  2. 

The  infinitive  is  used  in  Indirect  Discourse  with  admiror,  i,  o,  o;  ago, 
6,  o,  o;  animadverto,  13,  o,  o;  arbitror,  26,  17,  o;  audio,  3,  5,  4;  cogito,  i,  o,  o; 
cognosce,  10,  i,  o;  commemoro,  2,  3,  o;  comperio,  5,  5,  o;  conclamo,  2,  o,  2: 


24  SYNTAX  OF  HIGH- SCHOOL  LATIN 

confido,  4,  5,  o;  confirmo,  4,  6,  o;  coniuro,  2,  o,  o;  conspicio,  6,  2,  o;  constat, 
4,  o,  o;  constiluo,  i,  o,  o;  credo,  2,  2,  9;  demonstro,  6,  o,  o;  denuntio,  i,  o,  o;  dico, 
58,  60,  i;  dicer,  2,  14,  i;  doceo,  4,  o,  o;  doleo,  i,  o,  o;  <foc0,  2,  2,  o;  existimo, 
34,  n,  o;  existimor,  2,  o,  o;  gaudeo,  i,  i,  o;  intellego,  26,  16,  o;  invenio,  6,  o,  i; 
z'wfoo,  i,  o,  o;  iudico,  5,  5,  o;  loquor,  27,  o,  i;  memini,  i,  3,  i;  nuntio,  13,  o,  o; 
ostendo,  3,  o,  o;  persuadeo,  3,  o,  o;  polliceor,  9,  2,  i;  praedico,  -are,  30,  2,  o; 
/>r000,  2,  o,  o;  propone,  8,  2,  o;  />«/<?,  15,  43,  5;  0/wm?r,  3,  i,  o;  renuntio,  3,  o,  o; 
reperio,  16,  o,  o;  respondeo,  32,  i,  o;  sentio,  2,  19,  5;  sao,  7,  13,  o;  significo,  3, 
o,  o;  simulo,  i,  i,  o;  s/>er0,  i,  7,  8;  statue,  6,  2,  o;  suspicor,  5,  o,  o;  T^deo,  27,  49, 
20;  videor,  6,  63,  35;  certiorem  facie,  n,  o,  o;  civitatem  obstringo,  3,  o,  o;  cww 
Aw  mandatis,  3,  o,  o;  es*  verbum,  15,  o,  o;  &M/WS  es/  orationis,  5,  o,  o;  iw  spent 
venio,  i,  o,  o;  legates  mitto,  4,  o,  o;  legati  gratulatum  veniunt,  i,  o,  o;  memoria 
teneo,  3,  i,  o;  moleste  fere,  2,  o,  o;  nuntius  mitto,  i,  o,  o;  oratio  est,  3,  o,  o;  satis 
habeo,  i,  o,  o;  verba  /ado,  6,  o,  o;  commemoro,  2,  o,  o;  habere  explorata  dico, 
12,  o,  o;  incuso,  19,  o,  o;  obsecro,  5,  o,  o;  0r0,  2,  o,  o;  />eto,  i,  o,  o;  postulo, 
2,  o,  o;  se  ad  pedes  proiciunt,  2,  o,  o;  accipio,  o,  5,  o;  admoneo,  o,  2,  i;  agnosco, 
o,  i,  i;  aio,  o,  2,  2;  censeo,  o,  i,  o;  concede,  o,  i,  o;  confiteor,  o,  5,  o;  contendo, 
o,  2,  o;  criminor,  o,  i,  o;  decerno,  o,  2,  o;  declare,  o,  i,  o;  defero,  o,  6,  2;  despero, 
o,  i,  o;  dictito,  o,  i,  o;  fateor,  o,  8,  i;  ignore,  o,  3,  o;  indico,  o,  2,  o;  infiteor, 
o,  i,  o;  /aetor,  o,  i,  o;  /w^o,  o,  i,  o;  mm?r,  o,  i,  o;  ne>£0,  o,  3,  2;  w^ao,  o,  3,  o; 
obliviscor,  o,  3,  o;  obtineo,  o,  i,  o;  opinor,  o,  r,  o;  praecipio,  o  5,  o;  praescribo, 
o,  i,  o;  profiteer,  o,  2,  o;  provideo,  o,  i,  o;  />w/0r,  o,  i,  o;  recorder,  o,  i,  o; 
scribe,  o,  2,  o;  suadeo,  o,  2,  o;  tester,  o,  i,  3;  opinio  est,  o,  i,  o;  responsum 
fere,  o,  i,  o;  ca«0,  o,  o,  10;  cer»0,  o,  o,  5;  o&c0,  0,0,  i;  /a/fo,  0,0,  i;  fere,  o,  o,  3; 
feror,  0,0,2;  iuro,  0,0,  i;  mentior,  0,0,  i;  persentio,  o,  o,  2;  promitto,  o,  o,  5; 
3;  ra>r,  o,  o,  3;  repeto,  0,0,  2;  respicio,  0,0,  i;  ^0/0,  0,0,  i;  /aw#  awm  occupat, 
prospicio,  o,  o,  2;  fama  est,  0,0,  7;  /<zwa  fert,  o,  o,  i;  /awa  volat,  o,  o, 
4;  /fofes  manifesta,  o,  o,  i;  nuntius  venit,o,o,  i;  signum  effodio,  0,0,  i;  T>0# 
(erf),  o,  o,  i. 

Infinitives  with  adjectives:  paratus,  5,  o,  i;  certus,  o,  o,  i;  dignus,  o,  o,  i; 
praestantior,  o,  o,  2. 

The  infinitive  expresses  Purpose  with:  do,  o,  o,  9;  instituo,  0,0,  i;  vac0, 
0,0,  i;  venio,  0,0,  i. 

Participle.  The  present  participle  occurs  in  the  following  cases;  nominative, 
9,  9,  270;  genitive,  3,  3,  23;  dative,  5,  5,  28;  accusative,  17,  30,  223;  ablative, 
o,  3,  20;  ablative  absolute,  additional,  11,  7,  27;  vocative,  o. 

The  perfect  participle  occurs  in  the  following  cases:  nominative,  213,  119, 
515;  genitive,  4,  4,  29;  dative,  6,  4,  29;  accusative,  83,  105,  326;  ablative,  12, 
22,  57;  ablative  absolute,  additional,  384,  58,  126;  vocative,  o,  10,  25;  deponent 
nominative,  88,  7,  119;  genitive,  0,0,  i-  dative,  o,  o,  3;  accusative,  6,  i,  8; 
ablative,  i,  o,  i;  vocative,  o,  o,  6;  middle  nominative,  o,  o,  15. 

The  future  participle  occurs  in  the  following  cases,  not  including  those  in 
active  periphrastic  combination:  nominative,  o,  o,  14;  genitive,  o,  o,  2;  dative, 
o,  o,  4;  accusative,  o,  o,  9;  ablative,  0,0,  i 


EXPLANATION  OF  CATEGORIES  25 

The  active  periphrastic  occurs  in  the  following  moods:  indicative,  i,  5,  i; 
subjunctive,  3,  5,  o. 

The  gerundive  occurs  in  the  following  cases,  not  including  periphrastic 
use:  nominative,  i,  8,  7;  genitive,  17,  10,  o;  with  causa,  additional,  12,  7,  o; 
dative.  2,  o,  i;  accusative,  i,  13,  16;  with  euro,  additional,  3,  o,  o;  with  ad, 
additional,  33,  42,  o;  ablative,  n,  22,  i;  vocative,  o,  o,  i. 

The  passive  periphrastic  occurs  in  the  following  moods:  indicative,  14, 
39,  12;  subjunctive,  2,  10,  o;  infinitive,  34,  39,  5. 

Gerund.  The  following  cases  of  the  gerund  are  found:  genitive,  29,  22,  n; 
with  causa,  additional,  12,  o,  o;  dative,  o;  accusative,  o;  except  with  ad,  7,  12, 
o;  ablative,  4,  15,  16. 


THE  USE  OF   STATISTICAL  EVIDENCE  IN 
CURRICULUM-MAKING 

THE  BEARING  OF  STATISTICS  ON  THE  SELECTION 
OF  MATERIAL 

Other  things  being  equal,  when  we  select  constructions  to  teach  we 
should  choose  those  of  frequent  occurrence,  because  acquaintance  with 
these  will  make  a  maximum  contribution  toward  successful  reading.  We 
should  omit,  or  give  only  slight  and  incidental  attention  to,  constructions 
of  infrequent  occurrence.  It  will  be  a  further  aid  to  intelligent  selec- 
tion if  we  exhibit  the  constructions  arranged  in  the  order  of  their  total 
frequency  in  high-school  Latin.  Accordingly  this  is  done  in  Table  II. 
The  column  "  Occurrences "  gives  the  total  number  of  occurrences  for 
each  construction  separately,  arranging  them  in  the  order  of  numerical 
size.  In  the  column  ''Total  Occurrences "  there  is  a  cumulative  adding 
together  of  the  successive  numbers  from  the  preceding  column,  so  that 
one  can  see  at  a  glance  the  total  number  of  occurrences  of  the  highest 
ten,  the  highest  twenty,  or  any  specific  number  of  constructions.  The 
column  " Percentage  of  Constructions"  shows  what  percentage  any 
specific  number  of  constructions  is  of  the  total  number  examined,  and 
the  column  " Percentage  of  Occurrences"  shows  the  percentage  which 
the  occurrences  of  the  highest  ten,  highest  twenty,  etc.,  are  of  the  total 
number  of  occurrences  of  all  the  constructions.  Thus  we  see  at  once 
that  the  highest  10  per  cent  of  the  constructions  account  for  70  per  cent 
of  all  the  occurrences,  the  highest  20  per  cent  for  85  per  cent  of  all  the 
occurrences,  etc. 

The  same  facts  are  illustrated  in  Diagrams  I A  and  IB.  The  two 
diagrams  are  identical  except  that  IB  uses  a  left- to-right  scale  6f  times 
as  large  as  I  A,  and  consequently  has  the  fifteen  highest  frequencies 
cut  off  at  the  right  edge  of  the  diagram. 

Examination  of  the  table  and  the  diagrams  makes  it  clear  that  the 
variations  in  frequency  of  different  syntactical  constructions  are  not 
moderate  but  extremely  large.  The  complementary  infinitive  is  a 
hundred  times  as  frequent  as  the  supine  in  -urn,  relative  clauses  with  the 
indicative  two  hundred  times  as  frequent  as  relative  clauses  of  conces- 
sion, the  infinitive  in  indirect  discourse  a  hundred  times  as  frequent  as 

26 


SELECTION  OF  MATERIAL 


27 


TABLE  II 

RELATIVE  FREQUENCY  OF  CONSTRUCTIONS 


Construction 

Occurrences 

Total 
Occurrences 

Percentage 
of  Con- 
structions 

Percentage 
of  Occur- 
rences 

i    Nominative                            

6,088 

6,088 

O   7 

12.  3 

5,900 

11,988 

1  .4. 

24.  2 

•2    Independent  clause  indicative 

4  0?6 

16  064. 

2    I 

34.    3 

4.  Tenses,  subjective  regular  sequence.  . 
5    Participle  perfect                            ... 

2,825 
2,387 

19,789 
22,176 

2.8 

3        t 

40.0 
44  0 

6    Genitive  possessive                  

2,294 

24,470 

4   3 

49-  5 

7.  Tenses,  indicative  regular  sequence.  . 
8.  Ablative  means  

2,153 
1,478 

26,623 
28,101 

S-o 
C.7 

53-5 
56.9 

1,258 

29,359 

6-4 

59-4 

10    Accusative  limit                    

1,223 

30,582 

7.  1 

61  .9 

1,223 

31,805 

7.8 

64.4 

1  2    Infinitive  indirect  discourse 

I     174. 

32,070 

8  s 

66  8 

13.  Ablative,  separation  
14    Accusative  subject  of  infinitive  

1,161 
i  147 

34,140 

35,287 

9.2 

9Q 

69.1 

71   4 

982 

^6,260 

10  6 

73.4 

1  6    Infinitive  complementary 

816 

37  08=; 

II    3 

75    I 

17    Ablative  absolute                               . 

720 

-27  814. 

12   O 

76  6 

1  8    Participle  present 

693 

38x07 

12   8 

78  o 

19.  Tenses,  indicative  irregular  sequence 
20.  Dative  indirect  object  

598 
436 

39,105 
39,541 

13-5 
14.  2 

79  ..2 
80.  i 

432 

39,973 

14.9 

80.9 

369 

40,342 

15.6 

81.7 

23    Genitive  objective       

•240 

40,601 

16  3 

82  4 

24    Imperative                      

247 

41,038 

17  O 

83.1 

333 

41,371 

17.  7 

83.8 

26    Adverbial  clause  time  cutn 

207 

41  668 

18  4. 

84.  4. 

27    Ablative  respect                    .....    . 

2Q  2 

41  060 

IQ    I 

85    0 

28.  Ablative  accompaniment  

28l 

42,241 

10   0 

85  6 

29.  Dative  reference        

279 

42,520 

20  6 

86.1 

30.  Genitive,  partitive  

269 

42,789 

21  .  3 

86.6 

31.  Infinitive  as  object  

259 

43,048 

22  .O 

87.1 

32.  Adverbial  clause,  subordinate  in  ind. 
disc  .                 ....        

243 

43,2QI 

22    7 

87^6 

33.  Ablative,  cause  

238 

43,520 

23   4 

88.1 

34.  Ablative  time 

22Q 

4.3  758 

24.    I 

88  6 

•35.  Ablative  agent 

218 

43  Q76 

24.   8 

80  o 

36.  Substantive  clause,  indirect  question 
37.  Infinitive  as  subject  

215 

212 

44,191 
44,403 

25-5 
,26.2 

89-5 
89.9 

38.  Adverbial  clause,  cause,  quod,  etc.  .  . 
39.  Adverbial  clauses,  miscellaneous  in- 
dicative                 

211 

2O8 

44,614 
44  822 

26.9 
27   7 

90.3 

QO   8 

40.  Gerundive  

2O8 

45,O3O 

28  4 

OI  .  2 

41.  Genitive,  material  

IOI 

45,221 

20    I 

91  .6 

42.  Accusative,  adverbial  

187 

45  ,408 

29.8 

91  .9 

43.  Dative  with  special  verbs     

1  1O 

4.5  567 

30  < 

02    2 

44.  Ablative  with  prepositions  

155 

45  722 

31    2 

02    5 

45.  Passive  periphrastic  

1C"? 

45  877 

31    n 

02    8 

46.  Substantive  clause  volitive 

152 

46  029 

32   6 

O3    I 

47.  Relative  clause,  descriptive  
48.  Conditions,  mixed  and  irregular  
49.  Gerund  

152 
151 
128 

46,181 
46,332 

4.6  460 

33-3 
34-0 

34    7 

93-4 
93-7 

04  O 

28 


SYNTAX  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  LATIN 
TABLE  II— Continued 


Construction 

Occurrences 

Total 
Occurrences 

Percentage 
of  Con- 
structions 

Percentage 
of  Occur- 
rences 

50.  Adverbial  clause,  time,  postquam,  etc. 
51    Adverbial  clause,  purpose   

127 
118 

46,587 
46,705 

35-5 
1,6    2 

94-3 

O4    ? 

<  2    Adverbial  clause  result 

118 

4.6  821 

26    Q 

53    Dative  with  adjectives  

II  r 

4.6  038 

37   6 

v4-  / 

54    Dative  possessor   

ICX 

47  O43 

38  3 

QT       I 

^  ?    Dative  asrent 

IOO 

47  143 

2Q     O 

56    Ablative  descriptive 

Q4 

47  237 

2Q      7 

Vo  -o 

57    Accusative  extent,  duration  

86 

47  32^ 

4O  4 

VO  •  5 
QP    7 

58    Ablative,  source  

84 

47,407 

41    I 

ner   Q 

<o    Ablative  utor  etc 

84 

47  4QI 

41    8 

60    Adverbial  clause,  cause,  cum  

81 

47  ^72 

42  t; 

06    3 

6  1    Dative,  purpose  

70 

47>65I 

43    2 

06    ^ 

62    Genitive  with  adjectives 

77 

47  728 

43    Q 

96  6 

63    Genitive  descriptive          

77 

4.7  8<X 

44   6 

96  8 

64    Ablative  difference   

76 

47  881 

4C    7 

06  o 

6  ^    Substantive  clause  quod 

76 

47  O^7 

46  i 

66    Relative  clause  purpose   .  .  . 

67 

48  O24 

46  8 

O7    2 

67    Dative  direction,  etc  

66 

48  OQO 

47    ^ 

Q7    4 

68    Substantive  clause,  result  

64 

48,  154 

48    2 

O7    ^ 

60    Adverbial  clause  time  dutn 

62 

48  216 

48  o 

O7    6 

70    Conditions  contrary  to  fact 

e  c 

48  271 

4.0    6 

O7    7 

71.  Conditions,  regular  in  ind.  disc  
72.  Accusative,  respect  
73.  Conditions,  simple  

55 
So 

(JO 

48,326 
48,376 
48,426 

50-3 
51-0 
51.8 

97.8 

97-9 
08  o 

74.  Independent  clause,  subjunctive, 
volitive,  3d  per  ' 

48 

48.474 

CT2     <? 

08  i 

75.  Independent  clause,  subjunctive,  de- 
liberative   

4-C 

48,519 

<V  2 

98.2 

76    Two  accusatives,  making,  etc.  .  . 

43 

48  ^62 

CT2     Q 

08    3 

77.  Adverbial  clause,  concession,  cum.  .  . 
78.  Infinitive,  historical  

41 

T.Q 

48,603 
48,642 

54-6 
ec  .  3 

V"-  J 

98.4 

98  5 

70    Locative  case 

l8 

48  680 

r6  o 

98  6 

80    Infinitive  in  apposition  ...    . 

27 

48,717 

5".w 
56   7 

08  6 

81:  Adverbial  clause,  subjunctive  in  at- 
traction 

2  r 

4.8  7  C  2 

q7   4. 

08  7 

82    Subordinate  clauses  in  ind.  disc 

24 

48  786 

o/  -^ 
*8    I 

08  8 

83    Relative  clause,  cause  

•32 

48,818 

58  8 

08  o 

84.  Conditions,  more  vivid  future  

21 

48,849 

5Q.6 

98.9  • 

85    Participle  future 

TO 

48  870 

60    3 

00    O 

86.  Substantive  dau»e',  quin,  etc  
87.  Independent  clause,  subjunctive, 
volitive   ist  per 

26 

2C 

48,905 
4.8  O^O 

uu.^ 

61.0 

6l    7 

99.0 

QQ      I 

88    Ablative  in  comparison 

22 

4.8  0^2 

62   4. 

00    I 

89.  Independent  clause  subj.  for  imper. 
in  ind.  disc  
90.  Adverbial  clause,  time,  antequam,  etc. 
91.  Adverbial  clause,  comparison  
92.  Relative  clause,  result  

2O 
20 

18 
17 

48,972 
48,992 

49,010 
49,027 

63.1 
63-8 
64-5 

6s  .  2 

99.2 
99.2 
99.2 

99-  3 

93.  Adverbial  clause,  concession,  quam- 
quam     etc 

17 

40  O44 

65  o 

99-  3 

94.  Supine  in  -u  .  .             

16 

49,060 

66.6 

99-  1 

95.  Accusative,  exclamation  

1C 

49,075 

67.4 

99-4 

SELECTION  OF  MATERIAL 
TABLE  II— Continued 


29 


Construction 

Occurrences 

Total 
Occurrences 

Percentage 
of  Con- 
struction 

Percentage 
of  Occur- 
rences 

96.  Independent  clause,  ne  and  impera- 
tive 

icr 

4.0  OQO 

68   I 

OO    A 

97.  Independent  clause,  subjective,  opta- 
tive   

1C 

49,105 

68  8 

00    4. 

98    Active  periphrastic 

I  e 

4.O  1  2O 

6O       < 

99    Genitive  remembering,  etc     .      .    . 

14. 

40,134 

7O    2 

yy  -o 

oo  ? 

too.  Genitive,  miseret,  etc  
101.  Independent  clause,  subjunctive,  voli- 
tive   2d  per 

14 
14. 

49,148 
40  162 

70.9 

71   6 

99  5 

oo   c 

102.  Adverbial  clause,  concession,  etsi,  etc. 
103.  Tenses,  sequence  in  result  clauses.  .  . 
104.  Substantive  clause,  fear  

14 

12 
12 

49,176 
49,188 
49,2OO 

72.3 

73-o 
73   7 

yy  -o 
99.6 
99-6 

OQ    6 

105    Infinitive  purpose 

12 

4.O  212 

74.  4. 

106.  Independent  clause,  subjunctive,  po- 
tential   

II 

49,223 

7s?    2 

OO    7 

107.  Infinitive  with  adjectives 
108.  Independent  clause,  subj.  for  interr. 
in  ind.  disc  

IO 

8 

49,233 
40  24.1 

75-9 
76  6 

99  7 

OO    7 

109.  Adverbial  clause,  proviso  

8 

40,24.0 

77    3 

OO    7 

no    Supine  in  -um 

8 

4.Q  2^.7 

78  o 

in    Genitive,  value  

7 

4.O  264. 

78    7 

yy  •  / 
oo  8 

112.  Accusative,  cognate  

7 

4.0  271 

7O   4. 

yy  .0 
OO    8 

113.  Ablative,  price  :  

6 

40  277 

80    I 

OO    8 

1  14.  Independent  clause,  subjunctive,  con- 
cessive 

6 

4.O  283 

80  8 

oo  8 

115.  Relative  clause,  concession  
116.  Conditions,  simple  general  

6 
6 

49,289 
4.Q  2O  C 

8l-5 
82    2 

yy  .0 

99-8 
oo  8 

117.  Conditions,  less  vivid  future  
118.  Independent  clause,  subjunctive,  ob- 
ligation   
119.  Substantive  clause,  optative 

6 
5 

e 

49,301 
49,306 

AQ   3H 

83.0 

83.7 
84.    4. 

99.8 
99-8 

120.  Adverbial  clause,   concession,   quam 
vis,  etc 

AQ    -216 

8r    T 

yy  -y 

121.  Two  accusatives,  asking,  etc  
122.  Ablative,  penalty  

4 

49,320 
4.0  324. 

85-8 

86  < 

yy  .y 

99-9 

123.  Tenses,  irregular  subj.  sequence  with 
qui  

4.O  328 

87    2 

yy  -y 

1  24.  Tenses,  sequence  in  purpose  clauses  . 
125.  Genitive,  accusing,  etc.  .  . 

4 

49,332 
4.Q  33? 

87.9 
88  6 

yy  .y 

99.9 

126.  Genitive,  interest,  etc  

4.0  338 

80    3 

yy  -y 

127.  Two  accusatives  with  compounds.  .  . 
128.  Infinitive,  exclamation  

3 
3 

49,341 
40  34-4- 

9O.O 

oo  8 

99-9 
oo  o 

129.  Genitive,  verbs  of  plenty,  etc 

2 

4.O  34.6 

OI     C 

130.  Genitive,  potior  

2 

4.Q  34.8 

yi  -3 

O2    2 

yy  .y 

131.  Tenses,  parenthetical  purpose.  .  . 

2 

4.O  3  ?O 

O2    O 

yy  .y 
OO    O 

132.  Tenses  in  cum  clauses  
133.  Tenses  in  conditions  contrary  to  fact 
134.  Relative  clause,  condition.  . 

2 
2 
2 

49,352 

49,354 

4.Q  3  ?6 

93-6 

94-3 
o?  o 

99-9 
99-9 

135.  Infinitive  as  predicate  noun  
136.  Independent  claus.e,  imperative,  noli 
137.  Relative  clause,  imperative 

2 

I 

j 

49,358 

49,359 

95-7 
96.4 

yy  .y 

99-9 
99-9 

138.  Relative  clause,  wish. 

I 

4.O  36l 

y/  •  A 

O7    8 

yy  -y 

39.  Genitive,  admoneo,  etc  

o 

4.Q  36l 

98  6 

140.  Independent  clause,  imperative,  cave 
141.  Independent  clause,  ne  and  vol.  subj., 
2d  per  

O 

o 

49,36l 
4.O  36l 

99.3 

100.  0 

SYNTAX  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  LATIN 

Frequency 


IO 

20 

30 
40 

g    So 
|    60 

I    ^o 

6  so 

go 

IOO 

no 
1 20 
130 
140 


DIAGRAM  IA. — 141  constructions.     Relative  frequency  of  occur- 
rence in  high-school  Latin. 


Frequency 


o      o      o 
10     o 


DIAGRAM  IB. — 141  constructions.  Relative  frequency 
of  occurrence  in  high-school  Latin.  Scale  enlarged  by 
cutting  off  the  graph  lines  of  the  first  fifteen  constructions. 


AMOUNT  OF  MATERIAL  31 

the  subjunctive  after  verbs  of  fearing,  the  indicative  in  independent 
clauses  between  four  and  five  hundred  times  as  frequent  as  the  potential 
subjunctive  in  independent  clauses,  and  the  ablative  of  means  two  hun- 
dred times  as  frequent  as  the  ablative  of  price.  It  is  evident  that  the 
unconscious  assumption  that  all  the  constructions  listed  in  a  grammar 
are  about  equally  deserving  of  study,  the  assumption  on  which  much 
of  our  teaching  has  actually  been  based,  has  no  support  whatever  in  the 
real  facts  of  the  situation. 


THE  BEARING  OF  STATISTICS  ON  THE  AMOUNT 
OF  MATERIAL 

Statistics  of  frequency  of  usage  should  ordinarily  be  the  basis  of 
decision  to  devote  time  to  one  construction  in  preference  to  some  other 
construction  or,  in  other  words,  the  basis  of  selection.  Another  question 
is,  How  far  should  the  study  of  syntax  be  carried?  How  many  con- 
structions should  be  included?  The  statistics  of  frequency  will  also 
assist  anyone  who  attempts  a  rational  answer  to  this  question.  Natur- 
ally the  largest  profit  attaches  to  the  study  of  the  most  frequently  used 
constructions,  and  as  we  go  down  the  scale  we  find  the  constructions 
successively  becoming  less  and  less  profitable  as  additions  to  our  equip- 
ment; we  meet  with  " diminishing  returns."  This  is  evident  from  the 
figures  of  Table  II,  and  Diagram  II  represents  the  same  facts  graphically. 
In  the  diagram  the  dots  represent  separate  constructions  arranged  in  the 
order  of  Table  II,  that  is,  the  order  of  greatest  frequency.  For  any  dot 
the  abscissa,  or  distance  from  the  left  edge  of  the  diagram,  represents  the 
number  of  constructions  of  which  this  is  the  last  taken.  The  ordinate, 
or  distance  from  the  lower  edge,  represents  the  percentage  which  the 
occurrences  of  these  many  constructions  constitute  of  the  whole  number 
of  occurrences  of  all  constructions.  Thus  as  we  follow  the  dots  around 
the  curve  from  the  origin,  the  first  dot  indicates  that  the  first  construc- 
tion accounts  for  12  per  cent  of  all  the  occurrences,  the  second  that  the 
first  two  account  for  24  per  cent,  the  third  that  the  first  three  account 
for  34  per  cent;  similarly  the  first  five  account  for  44  per  cent,  the  first 
ten  for  61  per  cent,  the  first  twenty  for  80  per  cent,  and  so  on.  Or,  in 
terms  of  percentages: 


SYNTAX  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  LATIN 


10%  of  the  constructions  account  for  over    71 .0%  of  the  occurrences 

20% 

30% 
40% 
50% 
60% 
70% 
80% 
90% 


u 

85.0% 

u 

It 

91-0% 

u 

u 

95-o% 

u 

" 

97-0% 

u 

u 

98.0% 

u 

u 

99-0% 

u 

u 

99-8% 

u 

u 

99-9% 

u 

u 

100.0% 

u 

Actual  number  of  constructions 


Percentage  of  total  number  of  constructions 

DIAGRAM  II. — Percentage  of  the  total  number  of  occurrences  belonging  to  each 
fractional  part  of  the  total  number  of  constructions. 


AMOUNT  OF  MATERIAL  33 

The  approach  of  the  curved  line  to  a  horizontal,  as  well  as  its  close 
proximity  to  the  100  per  cent  line,  represented  by  the  upper  edge  of  the 
diagram,  indicates  the  small  and  diminishing  increment  of  profit  to  be 
attached  to  the  adding  of  the  less  frequent  constructions.  If  all  the 
constructions  were  equally  frequent  the  curve  would  be  a  diagonal 
straight  line  from  the  lower  left  to  the  upper  right  corner.  The  marked 
convexity  of  the  curve  is  another  index  to  the  inequality  in  frequency  of 
occurrences.  At  just  what  point  the  adding  of  new  constructions  shall 
cease  is  a  question  for  individual  or  collective  judgment  to  decide;  the 
statistical  exhibit  may  serve  as  part  of  the  scientific  basis  for  such  a 
decision. 

There  is  some  advantage  in  the  further  examination  of  a  specimen 
selection.  Professor  Lodge  in  his  Vocabulary  of  High  School  Latin  sub- 
mits as  his  selection  of  words  mainly  those  found  to  occur  as  many  as 
five  times  in  the  high-school  reading.  These  are  42  per  cent  of  all  the 
words  and  they  account  for  93  ^  per  cent  of  all  the  occurrences.  Simi- 
larly in  the  subsequent  portions  of  this  book  we  are  distinguishing  as  a 
specimen  selection  the  constructions  used  as  many  as  five  times  by  any 
one  author,  together  with  those  found  ten  times  in  the  three  authors  but 
less  than  five  times  in  any  one.  The  total  number  of  all  constructions 
examined  is  141,  and  these  are  found  employed  in  49,361  instances.  But 
as  sequence  of  indicative  tenses  and  mixed  conditions  were  given  only, 
for  purposes  of  comparison  and  are  not  usually  taught  as  grammatical 
categories,  this  really  reduces  to  137  constructions  employed  46,425 
times.  The  specimen  selection  based  on  five  occurrences  in  one  author, 
or  ten  in  all  three,  includes  109  of  these  constructions,  and  their  occur- 
rences number  46,339  out  of  the  46,425.  That  is,  79T\  per  cent  of  the 
constructions  are  employed  in  99  r\  per  cent  of  the  instances.  Considered 
with  reference  to  the  number  of  occurrences  this  selection  is  evidently 
very  large,  accounting  in  fact  for  almost  all  of  them,  or,  to  be  precise, 
for  more  than  99y\  per  cent.  I  should  be  prepared  to  hear  that  some 
Latin  departments  would  advocate  the  covering  of  not  over  95  or  90 
per  cent  of  the  ground  instead  of  the  99^  per  cent  represented  by  this 
very  conservative  selection.  The  109  constructions  are  enumerated  in 
the  next  section. 


34  SYNTAX  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  LATIN 

THE  BEARING  OF  STATISTICS  ON  THE  ARRANGEMENT 
OF  MATERIAL 

Besides  contributing  to  an  intelligent  selection  of  material  and  deter- 
mination of  the  amount  of  material  to  be  used,  the  statistics  of  usage 
are  also  a  scientific  basis  for  the  arrangement  of  the  selected  material  in 
the  curriculum.  It  is  obvious  that  the  constructions  used  by  Caesar  are 
in  the  main  the  ones  that  should  be  studied  in  the  Caesar  year,  those 
used  by  Cicero  the  ones  that  should  be  studied  in  the  Cicero  year,  and 
those  used  by  Vergil  the  proper  ones  for  the  Vergil  year.  Of  course  they 
overlap,  and  many  continue  to  be  used  throughout  the  course.  But  as 
a  matter  of  pedagogical  principle  constructions  common  in  Cicero,  but 
not  common  in  Caesar,  should  not  be  studied  until  Cicero  is  reached 
and  they  are  actually  needed;  constructions  common  in  Vergil,  but  not 
common  in  Caesar  or  Cicero,  should  not  be  studied  until  Vergil  is 
reached.  For  the  first  year  of  the  usual  four-year  course  it  may  be  best 
to  use  those  constructions  of  the  greatest  frequency  in  Caesar.  If  we 
assign  to  the  first  year  those  constructions  found  50  times  in  Caesar,  and 
arrange  our  specimen  selection  of  109  constructions  in  the  manner  sug- 
gested, the  distribution  in  a  four-year  course  would  be: 


Year 

Basis 

Number  New 
Constructions 

I                           .    . 

50  times  in  Caesar 

4.r 

2  

5  times  in  Caesar 

•21 

5  times  in  Cicero 

IQ 

5  times  in  Vergil 

14. 

Total  

IOQ 

Table  III  (p.  35)  exhibits  these  constructions  arranged  in  this 
manner. 

An  arrangement  by  half-years  would  be  more  arbitrary.  In  the 
upper  years  perhaps  there  is  not  enough  new  material  to  make  it  worth 
while  to  divide  it  by  half-years.  All  the  new  Cicero  constructions  might 
be  learned  in  the  first  half  of  the  year  and  reviewed  in  the  second,  and 
all  the  new  Vergil  constructions  similarly.  In  the  first  two  years  the 
new  material  is  so  copious  that  a  subdivision  is  probably  desirable.  In 
the  first  year,  if  we  take  in  the  first  semester  those  constructions  used 
90  times  in  Caesar  and  in  the  second  semester  those  used  50  times,  the 
apportionment  will  be  26  and  19  respectively.  In  Caesar  a  grouping  of 


ARRANGEMENT  OF  MATERIAL 


35 


I 


".-.a 


^Agent 
Posses 
vWithli 


ominativ 


A     V  '^-a 

lira  V 

^stss  s  T? 

«?  -5^  -H  •-*->  -S    <J 


D          3> 

-S  .  ,  B, 
o  «^^3 


5      '5      rcJ 


SYNTAX  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  LATIN 


£?* 


oo 


1 


* 

.S 

o> 

•t 


\ 

d 
j     I  '• 

£   ll 


5  C 

a« 

6  c 

I-H  — 

v2  «2 


3 
GOO) 


CTcn  E^^3C3  i3 

30)  .S--R5O  *J 

PnQ  H             CJU  < 

•>    -r  >    > 


- 


fi    O 


0) 

•a 

3 
C/3 


03 


O    ) 


ARRANGEMENT  OF  MATERIAL 


37 


20  and  ii  is  secured  by  assigning  those  used  over  12  times  to  the  third 
half-year  and  those  used  5  times  to  the  fourth.  The  half-year  distribu- 
tion described  may  be  summarized  thus: 


Half-Year 

Basis 

Number  New 
Constructions 

I    

90  times  in  Caesar 

26 

2  

50  times  in  Caesar 

IQ 

1  3  times  in  Caesar 

2O 

cj  times  in  Caesar 

I  I 

5  times  in  Cicero 

IQ 

5. 

6   

Review  of  all  prose  constructions 

o 

7  .  . 

5  times  in  Vergil 

14 

8 

Review  of  all  constructions 

Q 

Total  

IOQ 

The  tentative  arrangement  of  specific  constructions  by  half-years  is 
shown  in  Table  IV  (p.  38). 


SYNTAX  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  LATIN 


TABLE  IV 
TENTATIVE  SYNOPSIS  BY  HALF-YEARS 


First  Half-  Year 

Second  Half-Year 

Third  Half-Year 

Fourth  Half-Year 

Nominative  

Nominative 

Vocative     ....... 

Genitive  

Possessive 

Objective 

Descriptive 

With  adjec- 

Dative  

Partitive 
Ind.  object 

Material 
Special  verbs 

Agent 

tives 
Possessor 

Accusative  
Ablative  

Dir.  object 
Limit 
Subj.  infin. 
W.  prepositions 

Separation1--" 

Compounds 
Reference 
Purpose 

Manner 

W.  adjectives 

Adverbial 
Extent,  dura- 
tion 

Source 

Agent  * 
Means 
Cause 
Accompani- 
ment 
Absolute 
Place 
Time 

Respect 
W.  preposi- 
tions 

utor,  etc. 
Difference 
Descriptive 

Locative 

Tenses  

Regular  se- 

Independent cl  
Substantive  cl 

quence 
Indicative 

quod 

Subj.  for  imp. 
in  Or.  Ob. 

quin,  etc. 

Subj.  for  int. 
in  Or.  Ob. 

Fear 

Relative  cl  

Indicative 

Volitive 
Ind.  question 

Result 
Purpose 

Adverbial  cl  

Time  —  cum 

Indicative 

Descriptive 
Time  —  dum 

Time  —  ante- 

Infinitive  

Cause  —  quod 
In  ind.  disc. 

Complement  'y 

Purpose 
Result 

Subject 

"    —  post- 
quam 
Cause  —  cum 
Attraction 

Historical 

quam 
Concession  — 
cum 
Concession  — 
etsi 

Apposition 

Participle  

Object 
Ind.  disc. 

Perfect 

Gerundive 

Present 

W.  adjective 

Gerund  and  supine 

Pass,  peri- 
phrastic 

Gerund 

Supine  in  -um 

ARRANGEMENT  OF  MATERIAL 


39 


TABLE  IV— Continued 
TENTATIVE  SYNOPSIS  BY  HALF-YEARS 


Fifth  Half-  Year" 

Sixth 
Half-Year 

Seventh  Half-Year 

Eighth 
Half-Year 

Nominative  

Vocative  

Vocative 

Genitive  

Remembering 

Dative           .  .    . 

miseret,  etc. 
Direction  etc 

Accusative  

Twoaccus.  "making" 

Cognate 

Ablative 

Exclamation 
Comparison 

Respect 

b 

Locative      . 

i 

Tenses     

Irreg.  seq.  —  Result 

3 

n 

Independent  cl  
Substantive  cl  .  . 

Imperative 
Subj.  —  Volitive  3  p. 
"        Deliberative 
"        Concessive 
"        Potential 

c 

fr 

a, 
15 
"fc 

ne  and  Imperative 
Subj.  —  Volitive  i  p. 
Volitive  2  p. 
Optative 
Obligation 

rt 

cl 

i 

>* 

Relative  cl  

Result 

£ 

u 

Adverbial  cl 

Cause 
Proviso 

3 

Comparison 

Ctf 

tJ 

Infinitive      . 

Concession  —  quam- 
quam 
Conditions  —  Simple 
M.  V. 
future 
Conditions  —  Contr. 
fact 
In  ind.  disc. 

Purpose  etc 

1 

« 

Participle  

Active  periphrastic 

Future 

Gerund  and  supine 

Supine  in  -u 

With  the  coming  of  junior  high  schools  we  shall  have  to  work  out 
arrangements  for  six-year  courses.  Possibly  a  common  type  of  cur- 
riculum will  be  the  extension  of  " beginning"  work  over  the  first  two 
years,  assigning  Caesar  to  the  third,  Cicero  to  the  fourth,  Vergil  to  the 
fifth,  and  what  is  now  read  by  college  Freshmen  to  the  sixth.  If  so,  a 


40  SYNTAX  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  LATIN 

specimen  six-year  arrangement  might  be  not  greatly  different  from  what 
we  have  suggested  for  four  years,  for  example: 


Year 

Basis 

Number  New 
Constructions 

I 

oo  times  in  Caesar 

26 

2    

40  times  in  Caesar 

or 

*.  . 

5  times  in  Caesar 

2C. 

5  times  in  Cicero 

IQ 

C. 

5  times  in  Vergil 

1A. 

6  

Use  in  the  sixth-year  readings 

The  specific  constructions  indicated  can  be  readily  ascertained  from 
Tables  III,  IV,  and  I. 


ILLUSTRATIVE  EXAMPLES  CLASSIFIED  UNDER 
GRAMMATICAL  HEADINGS 

It  has  been  thought  that  it  might  add  to  the  usefulness  of  the  book 
to  include  a  selection  of  illustrative  examples.  For  each  construction 
five  examples  are  given  from  each  author  (if  he  employed  it  that  many 
times).  Following  the  style  of  typography  of  the  Lodge  Vocabulary,  we 
have  used  black  type  to  indicate  constructions  used  as  many  as  five 
times  by  Caesar,  ordinary  type  for  the  additional  constructions  used 
five  times  by  Cicero,  and  small  capitals  for  the  new  constructions 
used  five  times  by  Vergil;  moreover,  those  used  less  than  five  times  in 
any  one  author,  but  as  many  as  ten  times  in  all  three,  are  placed  in 
either  the  Cicero  or  the  Vergil  list.  All  other  constructions  are  printed 
in  extra  small  type. 

The  examples  are  first  presented  in  the  order  of  grammatical  classi- 
fication as  in  Table  I.  Then  the  same  examples  are  presented  in  their 
order  of  occurrence  in  the  texts. 


SELECTED  EXAMPLES 

NOMINATIVE 

Nominative:  Gallia,  B.  G.1  i.  i,  i;  pars,  i,  5;  is,  2,  i;  Orgetorix,  3,  3; 
Caesar,  32,  2.  furor,  Cat.,  i.  i;  castra,  5;  is,  22;  ego,  29;  homines,  31.  wrfa, 
,4m.  i.  12;  7w«0,  36;  Aeolus,  76;  Fewwj,  325;  iniuria,  341. 

VOCATIVE 

Vocative:  milites,  B.  G.  iv.  25,  3.  Catilina,  Cat.  i.  i;  Catilina,  2;  Catilina, 
3;  Catilina,  4;  patres,  4.  Aeole,  Aen.  i.  65;  regina,  76;  Ewre,  140;  r&e,  241; 
Cytherea,  257. 

GENITIVE 
Possessive:  provinciae,  B.  G.  i.  i,  3;   nobilitatis,  2,  i;   eiws,  7,  3;   fluminis, 

8,  4;    Aeduorum,  n,  i.    urbis,  Cat.  i.  i;    populi,  i;    bonorum,  i;    senatus,  i; 
horum,  i.     Troiae,  Aen.  i.  i;  superum,  4;  lunonis,  4;  Romae,  7;  deww,  9. 

Objective:  regm,  5.  G.  i.  2,  i;  causae,  4,  2;  reditionis,  5,  3;  itineris,  7,  4; 
regw,  9,  3.  Palati,  Cat.  i.  i;  seditionum,  4;  castrorum,  5;  optumatium,  7;  wrow, 

9.  fo/&,  ylew.  i.  14;  formae,  27;  generis,  132;  pelagi,  138;  telluris,  171. 
Partitive:  quarum,  B.  G.  i.  i,  i;   horum,  i,  3;  fluminis,  i,  6;   Oceani,  i,  7; 

passuum,  2,  5.     consili,  Cat.  i.  i;  nostrum,  i;  nostrum,  2;  detrimenti,  4;  gentium, 
9.     rtfgm,  ylm.  i.  78;  gentis,  96;  sororum,  322;  sororum,  326;  sanguinis,  329. 

Material:  hominum,  B.  G.  i.  4,  3;  equitum,  15,  3;  dediticiorum,  27,  4;  &0mi- 
nww,  35,  3;  hominum,  ii.  6,  2.  hostium,  Cat.  i.  5;  amicorum,  n;  coniuratorum, 
12;  temporis,  Arch,  i;  hominum,  3.  aquae,  Aen.  i.  105;  harenae,  112;  alarum, 
301;  ar^ew/i,  359;  awn,  iii.  49. 

Descriptive:  mensium,  B.  G.  i.  5,  3;  pedum,  8,  i;  legionum,  24,  2;  pedum, 
ii.  5,  6;  w0di,  iii.  12,  i.  w0df,  Ca/.  i.  4;  ordinum,  iv.  14;  w0d^,  Pomp.  6; 
gentium,  44;  w0dz,  ^4rcA.  3.  molis,  Aen.  i.  33;  0/>w,  601;  gentis,  iv.  483; 
populi,  615;  /wcw,  vi.  761. 

Value:  /aw/i,  B.  G.  i.  20,  5;  magni,  iv.  21,  7.  ton/i,  Ca*.  i.  22;  /aw/i,  ii.  15;  />ar7;f, 
Pomp.  18;  parvi,  Arch.  14.  /aw/j,  .4en.  iii.  453. 

With  Adjectives:  bellandi,  B.  G.  i.  2,  4;  iniuriae,  14,  2;  rerww,  18,  3;  m,  21, 
4;  rerum,  44,  9.  consili,  Cat.  i.  2;  imperi,  12;  Catilinae,  ii.  6;  Catilinae,  22; 
ferramentorum,ui.io.  opum,  Aen.i.i^;  rerum,  178;  awn, 343;  wworae,44i;  swi, 
v.  174. 

WITH  VERBS  OF  REMEMBERING,  ETC.:   incommodi,  B.  G.  i.  13,  4;   virtutis, 

i  The  abbreviations  used  are  as  follows: 

B.  G.  =  Caesar  de  fo//o  Gallico;  Cat.=  Cicero  *»  Catilinam;  Pomp.  =  Cicero  <fc 
imperio  Pompei;  Arch.=  Cicero  />ro  Archia;  A en.=  Vergil  Aeneis. 

Numbers  in  Caesar  refer  to  book,  chapter,  and  sentence;  in  Cicero,  to  oration 
and  section;  in  Vergil,  to  book  and  line;  they  are  taken  from  the  Teubner  editions, 
edited  by  Dinter,  Muller,  and  Ribbeck  respectively. 

41 


42  SYNTAX  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  LATIN 

13,  4;   contumeliae,  14,  3.     caedis,  Cat.  i.  6;  incendiorum,  6;  salutis,  iv.  i.     sw«, 
Aen.  iii.  629;  famae,  iv.  221;  regw,  267;  rerum,  267;  Elissae,  335. 

With  Verbs  of  Accusing,  etc.:  inertiae,  Cat.  i.  4;  nequitiae,  4.  mortis,  Aen. 
vi.  430. 

WITH  MISERET,  PAENITET,  ETC.:  quorum,  B.  G.  iv.  5,  3.  factorum  Cat. 
iv.  20;  consiliorum,  20.  laborum,  Aen.  ii.  143;  animi,  144;  thalami,  iv.  18; 
domus,  318;  sororis,  435. 

With  Interest  and  Refert:  rei,  B.  G.  ii.  5,  2;   salutis,  5,  2.     wea,  Ca/.  iv.  9. 
With  Verbs  of  Plenty  and  Want:   bacchi,  Aen.  i.  215;   ferinae,  215. 
With  Potior:   Galliae,  B.  G.  i.  3,  7.     rerunt,  Cat.  ii.  19. 

DATIVE 
Indirect  Object:  ej,  5.  G.  i.  3,  5;  illis,^,6\  illis,$,6\  Helvetiis,  4,  i;  Caesari, 


7,  i.     dw,  Ca/.  i.  n;   70w,  ii;   fo'W,  16;   adulescenti,  21;   w>0,  21.     mi&«,  ^4e/i. 
i.  8;  foTrc,  65;  w*7«,  78;  undis,  104;  re£*,  137. 

With  Special  Verbs:  civitati,  B.  G.  i.  2,  i;  m,  2,  3;  Rauracis,  5,  4;  ;l//0- 
bro  gibus,  6,  3;  /m,  9,  2.  reowj,  Ca/.  i.  3;  mihi,  6;  woow,  22;  temporibus,  22; 
/aw<&,  23.  w6/#,  ylew.  i.  257;  generi,  526;  cfo'c/w,  689;  dicto,  695;  e<7«0,  ii.  48. 

With  Compounds:  omnibus,  B.  G.  i.  2,  2;  finitimis,  2,  4;  sibi,  3,  3;  munitioni. 
10,  3;  populo,  12,  6.  ttw/«,  Ca/.  i.  n;  to'W,  n;  vitae,  13;  adulescentulo,  13; 
sceleri,  15.  scopulo,  Aen.  i.  45;  am,  49;  ventis,  69;  mar^,  84;  />0«to,  89. 

Reference:  ^'0i,  5.  G.  i.  5,  3;  sibi,  14,  2;  Haeduis,  17,  4;  sifo',  28,  i.  j»W, 
36,  4.  ret  publicae,  Cat.  i.  5;  /J0i,  16;  /j'oi,  18;  cui,  24;  CT,  ii.  2.  gentibus,  Aen. 
i.  17;  ;4ew&ze,  92;  iactanti,  102;  /ws,  106;  quibus,  232. 

Agent:  «fo,  J5.  G.  i.  n,  6;  GO//W,  31,  14;  Sequanis,  32,  5;  sffo,  33,  2;  wW, 
35,  2.  ww/w,  Ca/.  i.  5;  tibi,  16;  fo'oi,  16;  fo'oi,  17;  c«i,  24.  /a/w,  ^4ew.  i.  39;  mihi, 
326;  «/&,  440;  mihi,  574;  w#«,  623. 

Possessor:  sibi,  B.  G.  i.  7,  3;  «oi,  n,  5;  t#5»,  34,  2;  ^'oi,  35,  4;  nulli,  ii.  6,  3. 
lenitati,  Cat.  ii.  6;  wfo',  26;  portis,  27;  w'ae,  27;  Cethego,  iii.  10.  animis,  Aen. 
i.  n;  fw/tt,  71;  virginibus,  336;  /twic,  343;  quibus,  361. 

Purpose:  praesidio,  B.  G.  i.  25,  6;  domicilio,  30,  3;  concilia,  30,  5;  cwrae, 
33,  i;  colloquio,  34,  i.  nuptiis,  Cat.  i.  14;  jructui,  Pomp.  16;  cwrae,  17; 
praesidio,  32;  sa/«/i,  ;lrc&.  i.  excidio,  Aen.  i.  22;'  rebus,  207;  praedae,  210;  /ec/0, 
425;  auocilio,  ii.  216. 

With  Adjectives:  Germanis,  B.  G.  i.  i,  3;  />/e&i,  3,  5;  finibus,  6,  3;  Galliae, 
28,  4;  s#rc,  39,  3.  to'W,  Ca/.  i.  15;  /ioi,  24;  /ww,  24;  w*7w,  27;  wo0w,  iii.  2.  wwTw, 
^4ew.  i.  67;  cwi,  314;  caelestibus,  387;  ambobus,  458;  <&0,  589. 

DIRECTION  (POETIC):  La/J0,  Aen.  i.  6;  cae/0,  289;  0m,  377;  om,  538; 
0m,  6  1  6. 

ACCUSATIVE 

Direct  Object:  unam,  B.  G.  i.  i,  i;  aliam,  i,  i;  tertiam,  i,  i;  ea,  i,  3;  bellum, 
i,  3.  »0s,  Ca/.  i.  i;  sese,  i;  te,  i;  ^w^,  i;  quid,  4.  arwa,  ^4ew.  i.  i;  urbem,  5 
rfeo^,  6;  causas,  8;  quam,  15. 


SELECTED  EXAMPLES  43 

Adverbial:  nihil,  B.  G.  i.  40, 12;  multum,  iii.  9, 3;  multum,  iv.  i,  8;  maocimam 
partem,  i,  8;  multum,  3,  3.  nihil,  Cat.  i.  i;  quid,  20;  ecquid,  20;  gmd,  22;  quid, 
24.  multum,  Aen.  i.  3;  primum,  174;  primum,  189;  gww?,  407;  tantum,  745. 

COGNATE:  praedara,  Cat.  iii.  5;  egregia,  5;  quiddam,  Arch.  26.  hominem, 
Aen.  i.  328;  />/«ra,  385;  ww/to,  750;  waw,  iv.  468;  iter,  v.  862. 

Two  Accusatives,  "Making":  vergobretum,  B.  G.  i.  16,  5;  soldurios, 
jii.  22,  i;  regem,  iv.  21,  7.  dignum,  Cat.  i.  19;  gloriam,  29;  civem,  ii.  12;  hostem, 
12;  sanctos,  Arch.  18.  parentem,  Aen.  i.  75;  aras,  109;  miserum,  ii.  79;  Chaonios, 
iii.  334;  victorem,  v.  245. 

Two  Accusatives,  "Asking":  frumentum,  B.  G.  i.  16,  i.  poenas,  Aen.  ii.  139; 
veniam,  iv.  50;  /a/a,  vi.  759. 

Two  Accusatives  with  Compounds:  Axonam,  B.  G.  ii.  5,  4;  pontem,  10,  i;  Rhenum, 
iv.  1 6,  6. 

RESPECT:  oculos,  Aen.  i.  228;  gew#,  320;  animum,  579;  05,  589;  manus, 
ii-  57- 

Extent,  duration:  a/w0s,  5.  G.  i.  3,  4;  m#ta,  8,  i;  <fe'es,  15,  5;  07m0s, 18,  3 ; 
<&e.y,  39,  i.  diem,  Cat.  i.  4;  <&ew,  4;  annos,  ii.  7;  dies,  iii.  20;  punctum,  iv.  7. 
annos,  Aen.  i.  31;  annos,  47;  annos,  272;  saecula,  445;  noctem,  683. 

Limit:  septentriones,  B.  G.  i.  i,  5;  partem,  i,  6;  septentrionem,  i,  6;  monies, 
i,  7;  indicium,  4,  2.  finem,  Cat.  i.  i;  senatum,  2;  mortem,  2;  te,  2;  »<w,  2. 
Italiam,  Aen.  i.  2;  /z'/0ra}  3;  altum,  34;  patriam,  51;  Italiam,  68. 

Exclamation:  tempora,  Cat.  i.  2;  mores,  2;  rew  publicam,  ii.  7;  w0.s,  10; 
rem  publicam,  10.  miser abile,  Aen.  i.  in;  infandum,  251;  mirabile,  439;  wira- 
0i/e,  iv.  182;  horrendum,  454.  The  examples  in  Vergil  are  in  agreement  with 
clauses;  they  are  nevertheless  exclamatory. 

Subject  of  Infinitive:  Gallos,  B.  G.  i.  i,  5;  se,  2,  5;  biennium,  3,  2;  se,  3,  6; 
sese,  3,  7.  consilia,  Cat.  i.  i;  coniurationem,  i;  quern,  i;  te,  2;  pestem,  2.  hoc. 
Aen.  L  17;  progeniem,  19;  populum,  21;  Parcas,  22;  we,  37. 

With  Prepositions:  se,  5.  G.  i.  i,  2;  Rhenum,  i,  3;  rem,  4,  3;  angustias,  9,  i; 
eww,  48,  2.  we,  Ca£.  iv.  5;  noctem,  6;  inferos,  8;  oculos,  n;  Tabernas,  17  j 
cornua,  Aen.  iv.  61;  nemora,  70;  altaria,  145;  awras,  357;  terras,  523. 

ABLATIVE 

Separation:  Aquitanis,  B.  G.  i.  i,  2;  Belgis,  i,  2;  cw//w,  i,  3;  finibus,  2,  i; 
o#m,  4,  3.  Roma,  Cat.  i.  7;  cwra,  9;  woe,  10;  we/w,  10;  wroe,  12.  animo,  Aen. 
i.  26;  La&'0,  31;  inceptot  37;  puppi,  v.  12;  vespere,  19. 

Source:  finibus,  B.  G.  i.  i,  6;  matre,  18,  7;  tribunis,  39,  2;  Germanis,  ii.  4,  2; 
Cimbris,  29,  4.  civitatibus,  Pomp.  28;  nationibus,  28;  e0,  59;  studiis,  Arch.  13; 
doctrina,  18.  ja^0,  ^4ew.  i.  167;  origine,  286;  Maid,  297;  ve/w,  469;  dea,  582. 

Agent:  senatu,  B.  G.  i.  3,  4;  se,  14,  2;  m,  14,  6;  maioribus,  14,  7;  m,  16,  6. 
we,  Cfl/.  i.  5;  /e,  16;  gw0,  19;  <7«0,  19;  we,  23.  ewr00,  ^4e».  iii.  533;  70?;e,  iv. 
356;  70z/e,  377. 

Comparison:  opinione,  B.  G.  ii.  3,  i;   a««0,  iv.  i,  7;   ceteris,  3,  3.    /wee, 


44  SYNTAX  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  LATIN 

Cat.  i.  6;  vita,  27;  opinione,  iv.  6;  me,  n;  homine,  Pomp.  28.  term,  ^4e«. 
i.  15;  dicto,  142;  0w0,  544;  nota,  ii.  773;  ttfw,  iii.  214. 

Means:  ftumine,  B.  G.  i.  i,  5;  natura,  2,  3;  ftumine,  2,  3;  monte,  2,  3;  reows, 
3,  i.  scientia,  Cat.  i.  i;  caede,  3;  manu,  3;  suppliciis,  3;  praesidiis,  6.  •w,  4m. 
i.  4;  /a/w,  32;  aere,  35;  ve»/w,  43;  turbine,  45. 

With  Utor,  etc.:  imperio,  B.  G.  i.  2,  2;  consilio,  5,  4;  frumento,  16,  3;  opibus, 
20,  3;  impediments,  26,  4.  patientia,  Cat.  i.  i;  laetitia,  26;  /MS,  ii.  18;  0/>era, 
iii.  5;  praesidio,  8.  vocibus,  Aen.  i.  64;  harena,  172;  awra,  546;  awr0,  iii.  55; 
dapibus,  224. 

Cause:  dolore,  B.  G.  i.  2,  4;  cupiditate,  9,  3;  victoria,  14,  4;  cawsa,  18,  6; 
caw$a,  39,  2.  cawsa,  Ca/.  i.  15;  conscientia,  17;  cawsa,  19;  memoria,  22;  gaudiis, 
26.  /a/0,  Aen.  i.  2;  amore,  349;  laetitia,  514;  aspectu,  613;  dolore,  669. 

Manner:  periculo,  B.  G.  i.  10,  2;  lenitate,  12,  i;  lacrimis,  20,  i;  sinistra,  25,  3; 
proelio,  26,  i.  animo,  Cat.  i.  16;  />ac/0,  17;  ratione,  17;  wodo,  18;  animo,  20. 
murmure,  Aen.  i.  55;  conubio,  73;  turbine,  83;  cumulo,  105;  riwm,  123. 

Accompaniment:  Germanis,  B.  G.  i.  i,  4;  copiis,  2,  i;  civitatibus,  3,  i;  se, 
5>  35  fe£«*w,  8,  3.  we,  Ca/.  i.  6;  me,  8;  te,  8;  te,  9;  te,  10;  se,  4ew.  i.  37;  gew/e, 
47;  se,  50;  se,  59;  navibus,  193. 

Degree  of  Difference:  ww//0,  B.  G.  i.  6,  2;  ^MO,  8,  2;  e0,  14,  i;  quo,  14,  5; 
passibus,  22,  i.  diebus,  Cat.  iii.  3;  multo,  iv.  3;  WM//O,  17;  ww/to,  Pomp,  i; 
multo,  10.  multo,  Aen.  ii.  199;  capite,  219;  cervicibus,  219;  cursu,  iii.  116; 
tempore,  309. 

Descriptive:  animo,  B.G.  1.6,3-,  animo,  7,  4;  virtute,  28,  5;  altitudine,s&,  5; 
magnitudine,  39,  i.  />a/re,  Ca/.  i.  4;  commendatione,  28;  animo,  29;  acre,  ii.  4; 
capillo,  22.  corpore,  Aen.  i.  71;  «7vJ5,  164;  scopulis,  166;  mensibus,  269; 
313. 


Price:   pretio,  B.  G.  i.  18,  3;    pretio,  iv.  2,  2.     /Iwro,  ^4en.  i.  484;   magno,  ii.  104; 

,  vi.  621;    pretio,  622. 

Penalty:  morte,  Cat.  i.  28;   morte,  29;   morte,  ii.  4;   morte,  iv.  7. 

Respect:  lingua,  B.  G.  i.  i,  i;  lingua,  i,  2;  institutis,  i,  2;  virtute,  2,  2; 
,  3,  6.  custodia,  Cat.  i.  19;  ubertate,  Pomp.  14;  genere,  27;  magnitudine,  27; 
27.  6e//0,  4e».  i.  21;  /0rw0,  72;  /wga,  317;  /wwore,  335;  6e//0,  339. 

Absolute:  Messala,  B.  G.  i.  2,  i;  re£«0,  3,  7;  j/>e,  5,  3;  oppidis,  5,  4;  reows, 
6,  4.  coe/M,  Ca^.  i.  10;  tumultu,  ii;  we,  13;  Lepido,  15;  A0c,  30.  /ae50,  ylm. 
i.  8;  5aw0,  16;  cuspide,  81;  agmine,  82;  compagibus,  122. 

Place  Where:  finibus,  B.  G.  i.  i,  4;  itinere,  3,  i;  civitate,  3,  5;  Gallia,  7,  2; 
animo,  7,  3.  re  publica,  Cat.  i.  3;  tabulis,  4;  periculis,  4;  Italia,  5;  faucibus,  5. 
term,  4ew.  i.  3;  a/te-,  3;  aequore,  29;  />0w/0,  40;  c0r<te,  50. 

Time:  tempore,  B.  G.  i.  3,  5;  <fte,  6,  4;  die,  10,  5;  tempore,  n,  3;  tempore, 
n,  4.  <&e,  Ca/.  i.  7;  discessu,  7;  Kalendis,  8;  »0cte,  8;  «0cte,  9.  aestate,  Aen.  i. 
430;  somno,  470;  cardine,  672;  g«0,  ii.  268;  diebus,  342. 

With  Prepositions:  multitudine,  B.  G.  i.  2,  5;  maleficio,  7,  3;  maleficio,  9,  4; 
see/ere,  14,  5;  magnitudine,  ii.  30,  4.  te,  Ca/.  i.  18;  legionibus,  ii.  5;  #/0,  7; 


SELECTED  EXAMPLES  45 

26;   his,  27.     Argis,  Aen.  i.  24;   mentis,  74;   numine,  133;   yJwe,  279;   Ascanio, 


LOCATIVE 

Locative:  domi,  B.  G.  i.  18,  6;  down,  20,  2;  down,  28,  3;  domi,  iv.  i,  5;  domi, 
i,  5.  cfowf,  Cat.  i.  19;  cfowf,  32;  Romae,  ii.  8;  Romae,  17;  Romae,  Pomp.  19. 
/MOTH',  ;lew.  i.  193;  &M0w,  ii.  380;  Crelae,  iii.  162;  Libyae,  iv.  36;  humi,\.  78. 

TENSES 

Regular  Sequence:  pertinerent,  B.  G.  i.  3,  i;  cremaretur,  4,  i;  extant,  5,  i; 
possent,  6,  i;  dicer  ent,  7,  3.  exspectes,  Cat.  i.  6;  confideres,  8;  cogitent,  9;  z>eww- 
sew/,  10;  possit,  13.  videat,  Aen.  i.  182;  fundat,  193;  credant,  218;  pateant,  298; 
iactemur,  332. 

Irregular  Sequence  —  Qwi:  permanserit,  Pomp.  54;  duxerit,  Arch.  25.  laeserit,  Aen. 
ii.  231;  intorserit  231;  audierit,  346. 

Irregular  Sequence  —  Purpose:  cernam,  Aen.  ii.  667;  peragat,  iv.  452;  relinquat, 
452;  audires,  vi.  534. 

Irregular  Sequence  —  Parenthetical  Purpose:    «'/,  Ca/.  iii.  10;    miretur,  Arch.  2. 

Irregular  Sequence  —  Result:  debuerint,  B.  G.  i.  11,3;  consuerint,  14,  7; 
defuerit,  ii.  21,  5.  sitinventum,  Cat.  iii.  17;  diiudicatae  sint,  25;  videantur,  Pomp. 
10  ;  audiatis,  33;  dicatur,  39. 

Irregular  Sequence  —  Cum:  pugnatum  sit,  B.  G.  i.  26,  2.     ifn^,  Ca£.  ii.  15. 
Irregular  Sequence  —  Conditions  Contrary  to  Fact:    deberet,   Pomp.  58.    adforet, 
Aen.  ii.  522. 

INDEPENDENT  CLAUSES 

Indicative:  difierunt,  B  G.  i.  i,  2;  suscepit,  3,  3;  mittunt,  9,  2;  subducit,  22, 
3;  promovit,  48,  i.  abutere,  Cat.  i.  i;  eludet,  i;  iactabit,  i;  moverunt,  i;  sentis, 
i.  ftwo,  ylew.  i.  i;  /wz/,  12;  nascetur,  286;  J^7,  402;  praemittit,  644. 

Imperative:  desilite,  B.  G.  iv.  25,  3.  ww/a,  Ca/.  i.  6;  cra/e,  6;  obliviscere, 
6;  recognosce,  8;  />erg£,  10.  incute,  Aen.  i.  69;  o&rwe,  69;  age,  70;  (/meg,  70; 
per/er,  389. 

Imperative  —  Noli  and  Infinitive:    nolite  dubitare,  Pomp.  68. 

NE  AND  IMPERATIVE:  we  credite,  Aen.  ii.  48;  we  &'we,  607;  wew  recusa,  607; 
we  linque,  iii.  160;  we  dubita,  316. 

SUBJUNCTIVE  —  VOLITIVE  i  p.  :  optemus,  Cat.  ii.  16;  queramur,i6;  consider  e- 
mus,  Pomp.  36.  sequamur,  Aen.  ii.  388;  sequamur,  iii.  114;  petamus.  115; 
petamus,  129;  sequamur,  188. 

SUBJUNCTIVE  —  VOLITIVE  2  p.:  w/w,  ^4ew.  i.  733;  maneas,  ii.  160;  5en»ej, 
160;  imponas,  iv.  497;  od,m,  578. 

Subjunctiv  e  —  V  o  1  i  t  i  v  e  3  p.  :  secedant,  Cat.  i.  32  ;  congregentur,  32  ; 
secernantur,  32;  «/  inscriptum,  32;  exeant,  ii.  6.  z'ac/e/,  ^4ew.  i.  140;  regnet, 
141;  paeniteat,  549;  /i'cea/,  551;  s#,  ii.  711. 

Subjunctiv  e  —  D  e  1  i  b  e  r  a  t  i  ve  :  laeter,  Cat.  iv.  2  ;  commemorem,  15; 
arbitraretur,  Pomp.  31;  dicam,  32;  querar,  32.  nesciat,  Aen.  i.  565;  temperet, 
ii.  8;  explicet,  362;  possit,  362;  requirat,  390. 


46  SYNTAX  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  LATIN 

Subjunctive  —  Concessive:  sit,  Cat.  iv.  21;  ornetur,  21;  habeatur,  21; 
sit,  21  ;  anteponatur,  21.  fuisset,  Aen.  iv.  603. 

SUBJUNCTIVE  —  OPTATIVE:  eduxisset,  Cat.  ii.  4;  haberetis,  Pomp.  27.  adforet, 
Aen.  i.  576;  ferant,  605;  fecissent,  ii.  no;  mansisset,  iii.  615;  ostendat,  vi.  188. 

SUBJUNCTIVE  —  UNFULFILLED  OBLIGATION:  tulissem,  Aen.  iv.  604;  implessem, 
605;  extinxem,  606;  dedissem,  606;  vocasses,  678. 

Subjunctive  —  Potential:  mallem,  Cat.  ii.  5;  vereamini,  iv.  13;  possis,  22; 
sumantur,  Pomp.  44;  disputarem,66.  optem,  Aen.  iv.  24;  cernas,  401;  praestiterit, 
vi.  39;  vellent,  436. 

Subjunctive  for  Imperative  in  Indirect  Discourse:  reverterentur,  B.  G.  i.  7,  5; 
reminisceretur,  13,  4;  congrederetur,  36,  7;  lacesserent,  iv.  n,  6;  sustinerent, 
11,6. 

Subjunctive  for  Interrogative  in  Indirect  Discourse:  iudicaret,  B.  G.  i.  40,  2; 
vererentur,  40,  4;  desperarent,  40,  4;  ve//e/,  44,  8;  veniret,  44,  8. 

SUBSTANTIVE  CLAUSES 

With  Quod:  adortus  esset,  B.  G.  i.  13,  5;  gloriarentur,  14,  4;  videbat,  53,  6; 
vetuerat,  ii.  20,  3;  excedebant,  iii.  4,  3;  occidit,  Cat.  i.  3;  vacuefacta  sunt,  16; 
reliquerunt,  16;  dedisti,  19;  dixisti,  19.  eripis,  Aen.  ii.  665. 

Volitive:  exirent,  B.  G.  i.  2,  i;  occuparet,  3,  4;  conaretur,  3,  5;  paterentur 
6,  3;  toa/,  7,  3.  videret,  Cat.  i.  4;  adservarem,  19;  commoveare,  22;  me/,  ii. 
26;  me/,  iii.  8.  w//e/,  j4ew.  ii.  653;  secundarent,  iii.  36;  levarent,  36;  careat,  iv. 
432;  /*Vea/,  v.  796. 

With  "Quin,"  etc.  :  possent,  B.  G.  i.  3,  6;  consciverit,  4,  4;  s*«/  erepturi,  17,  4; 
sumat,  31,  15;  exirent,  33,  4.  transmittendum  sit,  Pomp.  42;  possit,  43;  conferatis, 
49;  credatis,  68.  atiou,  4e».  iii.  456;  poscas,  456. 

Fear:  oftenderet,  B.  G.  i.  19,  2;  posset,  39,  6;  circumveniretur,  42,  4;  adduce- 
retur,  ii.  i,  2;  circumvenirentur,  26,  2.  dicat,  Cat.  i.  5;  redundaret,  29;  st/,  ii.  15; 
videamini,  iv.  13;  habeam,  14.  deficeret,  Aen.  vi.  354;  nocerent,  694. 

Optative:  audiatis,  Cat.  ii.  15;  «a/,  16;  5*/,  Pomp.  48.  dehiscat,  Aen.  iv.  24; 
a6^a/,  25. 

Result:  vagarentur,  B.  G.  i.  2,  4;  cremaretur,  4,  i;  haberet,  10,  2;  arcesserentur, 
31,  4;  gravaretur,  35,  2.  intellegas,  Cat.  i.  20;  /><755^,  27;  nominaretur,  27; 
possem,  ii.  4.  praeterlabare,  Aen.  iii.  478. 

Indirect  Question:  aga/,  5.  G.  i.  20,  6;  loquatur,  20,  6;  s*'/,  21,  2;  ducerentur, 
40,  i;  haberet,  40,  6.  egem,  Ca/.  i.  i;  /wem,  i;  «'/,  16;  sentiant,  20;  impendeat, 
22.  iactetur,  Aen.  i.  668;  vertant,  671;  consederis,  .iv.  39;  accenderit,  v.  4; 
possit,  6. 

RELATIVE  CLAUSES 


Indicative:  incolunt,  B.  G.  i.  i,  i;  pertinent,  i,  3;  incolunt,  i,  3; 
es/,  i,  5;  dividit,  2,  3.  machinaris,  Cat.  i.  2;  convenit,  4;  oportuit,  5;  fuerunt, 
8;  oportebat,  9.  vidimus,  Aen.  \.  584;  mft,  ii.  5;  /«*',  6;  obtulerat,  61;  demisere, 
85 


SELECTED  EXAMPLES  47 

Imperative:  spargite,  A  en.  iii.  605. 

Purpose:  dicerent,  B.  G.  i.  7,  3;  cognoscerent,  21,  i;  sustineret,  24,  i;  postu- 
larent,  34,  i;  perterrerent,  49,  3.  praestolarentur,  Cat.  i.  24;  efferret,  iii.  8;  am- 
pere/, 8;  praeponeretis,  Pomp.  63;  inferatur,  65.  saVe/,  -4e«.  i.  63;  onerent,  706; 
ponant,  706;  piaret,  ii.  184;  reddat,  iv.  479. 

Wish:  convertant,  Aen.  ii.  191. 

Descriptive:  possent,  B.  G.  i.  6,  i;  tolerarent,  28,  3;  insilirent,  52,  5; 
recusaret,  iii.  22,  3;  mm/,  28,  i.  audeat,  Cat.  i.  6;  expectes,  6;  audiam,  8; 
cogitent,  9;  po^'/,  13.  res/e/,  4erc.  ii.  142;  cwre/,  536;  &cea/,  iii.  461;  ve&/,  iv. 
488;  w/w/,  v.  486. 

Result:  fateatur,  .Cat.  i.  5;  fateatur,  30;  wa/j/,  ii.  16;  nege/,  iii.  21;  movear, 
iv.  3.  frangeret,  Aen.  v.  591;  and  perhaps  possent,  vi.  200. 

Cause:  mm,  Ca/.  i.  19;  sciam,  24;  sciam,  24;  sdam,  24;  sentirent,  iii.  5. 
laeserit,  Aen.  ii.  231;  intorserit,  231;  audierit,  346;  traxerit,  v.  624;  simularet, 
vi.  591. 

Concession:  respondisset,  Cat.  iii.  10;  dixisset,  10;  potuisset,  Pomp.  26.  wse/, 
^4ew.  ii.  248;  5/w  dedignata,  iv.  536. 

Condition:  lenierit,  Cat.  iv.  12;   «7,  16. 

ADVERB  CLAUSES 

Indicative:  em/,  5.  G.  i.  8,  4;  em/,  10,  3;  intermittit,  38,  5;  demonstravimus, 
ii.  i,  i;  posiulabat,  33,  2.  vivw,  Ca/.  i.  6;  fecerunt,  6;  coepisti,  10;  metuunt,  17; 
opinor,  17.  J#to,  ^4m.  i.  83;  ludunt,  397;  cinxere,  398;  iwj^,  iii.  236;  ferent, 
vi.  822. 

Purpose:  suppeteret,  B.  G.  i.  3,  i;  essent,  5,  3;  posset,  7,  5;  impetrarent,  9,  2; 
posset,  13,  i.  possis,  Cat.  i.  6;  videatur,  14;  opprimar,  18;  desinam,  18;  videaris, 
23.  exigat,  Aen.  i.  75;  pateant,  298;  posset,  413;  petamus,  554;  inspires,  688. 

Result:  condonet,  B.  G.  i.  20,  5;  videretur,  33,  5;  perturbaret,  39,  i;  jare/, 
44,  9;  posset,  ii.  25,  i.  coercerent,  Cat.  i.  3;  viderentur,  15;  videar,  16;  revocarit, 
22;  putarem,  29. 

Time — "Cum":  conaretur,B.G.  i.  4,  3;  nuntiatum  esset,  7,  i;  exisset,  12,  5; 
possent,  13,  5;  potuit,  iii.  9,  2.  conftderes,  Cat.  i.  8;  voluisti,  n;  haesitaret,  ii. 
13;  teneretur,  13;  videretis,  iii.  4.  peteret,  Aen.  i.  651;  s/are/,  ii.  113;  diffideret, 
iii.  51;  frangeret,  625;  manderet,  627. 

Time — "Antequam,"  etc.:  conaretur,  B.  G.  i.  19,  3;  appetissent,  43,  7;  />erz>£- 
nerunt,  53,  i;  attigisset,  ii.  32,  i;  s//  concessum,  iii.  18,  7.  ra&o,  Gz/.  iv.  20. 
venimus,  Aen.  ii.  743;  subigat,  iii.  257;  />ojm,  387;  w'0/0,  iv.  27;  decerpserit, 
vi.  141. 

Time— "Dum,"  etc.:  convenient,  B.  G.  \.  7,  5;  peruenirent,  n,  6;  potuerit, 
17,  6;  accessisset,  iv.  n,  6;  />O/MJ/,  12,  5.  m/,  Ca/.  i.  6;  insidiatus  es,  n;  />e/w/i, 
n;  delectantur,  ii.  20;  continebatur,  iii.  16.  manebant,  Aen.  ii.  22;  s/a&a/,  88; 
manebant,  455;  sinebant,  iv.  651;  da&a/,  v.  415. 

Time — "Postquam,"  etc. :  arbitrati  sunt,  B.  G.  i.  5,  2;  /ac/i  5«w/,  7,  3;  vent/, 
8,  3;  constiterunt,  iv.  26,  5;  receperunt,  27,  i.  "adsedisti,  Cat.  \.  16;  i«ww5  &s/,  ii. 


48  SYNTAX  OF  HIGH-  SCHOOL  LATIN 

12;  erupit,  iii.  3;  vidi,  4;  comperi,  4.  flectit,  Aen.  i.  156;  exempta,  216;  introgressi, 
520;  remotae,  723;  concessit,  ii.  91. 

Proviso:  intersit,  Cat.  i.  10;  «/,  22;  depellatur,  ii.  15;  ea/,  15;  pariatur,  iv.  i. 
lm.  iii.  116;  sequatur,  iv.  109;  remetior,  v.  25. 

Cause  —  "Cum":  praestarent,  B.  G.  i.  2,  2;  possent,  9,  2;  possent,  n,  2;  swsce- 

/,  16,  6;  teneret,  20,  4.  sw/,  Ca/.  i.  10;  «'«/,  ii  15;  sit,  24;  sw/,  26;  MW/, 
iv.  18. 

Cause  —  "Quod,"  etc.:  absunt,  B.  G.  i.  i,  3;  contendunl,  i,  4;  continentur, 
2,  3;  me/,  3,  6;  patebat,  ii.  8,  2;  effugimus,  Cat.  i.  n;  audeo,  12;  contineremur, 
19;  extulit,  ii.  2;  egressus  est,  2.  remordet,  Aen.  i.  261;  vetabat,  ii.  84;  reliqui, 
iv.  315;  resto/,  324;  «mtf,  538. 

Concession  —  "Cum":  sw/,  5.  G.  i.  14,  6;  posset,  16,  6;  pugnatum  sit,  26,  2; 
haberet,  43,  5;  venirent,  ii.  29,  i.  jw,  C0/.  i.  16;  consumeret,  ii.  9;  scirem,  13; 
placeret,  iii.  7;  posset,  n.  cuperem,  Aen.  v.  810. 

Concession  —  "Quamquam,"  etc.:  repetissent,  B.  G.  i.  30,  2.  videbam, 
Cat.\.  n;  fuerunt,i&;  premuntur,  ii.  19;  sunt,  27;  est  depulsum,  iii.  29.  recessit, 
Aen.  ii.  300;  tenetur,  533;  cw/>j/,  iv.  394;  geniti,  vi.  394;  invicti  essent,  394. 

Concession  —  Quamvis,  etc.:  acciderent,  B.  G.  iii.  9,  6;  deiecit,  Aen.  v.  542;  fixerit, 
vi.  802;  pacarit,  803;  tremefecerit,  803. 

Concession  —  "Etsi,"  etc.  :  videbat,  B.  G.  i.  46,  3;  existimabant,  iii.  24,  2;  exacta 
erat,  28,  i;  proponebatur,  iv.  17,  2;  vergit,  20,  i.  possit,  Cat.  i.  19;  defendant, 
Pomp.  13;  /ac/a  es/,  15;  s««/,  64;  habetis,  66.  es/,  ^4ew.  ii.  584;  /ta&e/,  584. 

Conditions  —  Simple:  consults,  Cat.  i.  13;  contigit,  16;  potes,2o;  neglegis, 
28;  es/,  29.  M'<,  ^4ew.  i.  376;  docuere,  392;  servant,  546;  vescitur,  546;  pervenit, 
ii.  81. 

Conditions  —  Simple-General:  era/,  B.  G.  i.  48,  6;  deciderat,  48,  6;  era/,  48,  7;  c0e- 
perant,  iii.  12,  2.  biberunt,  Cat.  i.  31;  conspexere,  Aen.  i.  152. 

Conditions  —  More  Vivid  Future:  iussero,  Cat.  i.  5;  iussero,  12;  exieris, 
12;  feceris,  23;  t'er&}  23.  intraro,  Aen.  iii.  501;  certo,  iv.  125;  attigerit,  568; 
extulerit,  v.  65;  acceperit,  vi.  770. 

Conditions  —  Less  Vivid  Future:  loquatur,  Cat.  i.  19;  velint,  ii.  20;  deficiant,  25; 
dicam,  iii.  22.  dedissent,  Aen.  ii.  136;  spondeat,  v.  18. 


Conditions  —  Contrary  to  Fact:  metuerent,  Cat.  i.  17;  viderem,  17;  /^ 
rew/,  17;  dixissem,  21;  iudicarem,  29.     ferant,  Aen.  i.  59;  juisset,  ii.  54;  possent, 
292;   adforet,  522;   resistat,  599. 

Conditions  in  Indirect  Discourse:  conentur,  B.  G.  i.  8,  3;  dentur,  14,  6; 
satis  faciant,  14,  6;  possint,  17,  3;  accidat,  18,  9.  decreverit,  Cat.  i.  20;  pervenerit, 
30;  multassem,  ii.  4;  perierit,  23;  flexissent,  iii.  19.  tulisset,  Aen.  ii.  94;  remeas- 
sem,  95;  repetant,  178;  violasset,  189;  ascendisset,  192. 

COMPARISON:  adesset,  B.  G.  i.  32,  4.  videamus,  Pomp.  67.  incidit,  Aen.  ii. 
305;  pressit,  380;  confligunt,  417;  jorent,  439;  morerentur,  439. 

Subordinate  Clause  in  Indirect  Discourse:  vicerit,  B.  G.  i.  31,  12;  referret,  35, 
2;  censuisset,  35,  4;  superati  essent,  36,  3;  accessisset,  42,  i.  contineremur,  Cat. 

'In  this  passage  the  manuscript  does  not  show  quamquam,  and  it  is  doubtful  that  Caesar 
uses  it  anywhere. 


SELECTED  EXAMPLES  49 

i.  19;  incendissent,  iii.  8;  fecisset,  8;  vellet,  n;  persequeretur,  Pomp.  22.    repetant, 
Aen.  ii.  178;  reducat,  178;  violasset,  189;  ascendisset,  192;  speret,  iv.  292. 

Attraction:  viderentur,  B.  G.  ii.  n,  5;  continerentur,  n,  5;  arbitraretur,  iii. 
i,  3;  posset,  n,  5;  afflictarentur,  12,  i.  increpuerit,  Cat.  i.  18;  faceret,  iii.  4; 
eweJ,  8;  sare/,  8;  licuisset,  Pomp.  62.  sint,  Aen.  iii.  262;  possent,  vi.  200  may  be 
Repeated  Action.  . 

INFINITIVES 

Subject:  potiri,  B.  G.  i.  2,  2;  perficere,  3,  6;  se^wi,  4,  i;  facere,  7,  3;  jacere, 
7,  3.  dwa,  Ca/.  i.  2;  inter fectum  esse,  4;  factumesse,  5;  trucidare,  9;  proficisci,  9. 
condere,  Aen.  i.  33;  capessere,  77;  oppetere,  96;  componere,  135;  meminisse,  203. 

Appositive:  retentos,  B.  G.  iii.  9,  3;  coniectos,  9,  3;  missas  esse,  iv.  6,  3; 
resistere,  7,  3;  deprecari,  7,  3.  iacere,  Cat.  i.  26;  vigilare,  26;  multare,  29; 
insidiari,  ii.  10;  valuisse,  Arch.  15.  explorare,  Aen.  i.  77;  struere,  704;  cogno- 
scere,  ii.  10;  SO/MJ,  350;  succurrere,  451. 

Predicate  Noun:  s  per  are,  Aen.  ii.  354;  consider  ey  iv.  349. 

Complementary:  inferre,  B,  G.  i.  2,  4;  comparare,  3,  i;  potiri,  3,  7;  exsequi, 
4>  31  facere,  5,  i.  vast  are,  Cat.  i.  3;  defender e,  6;  negare,  8;  inter ficere,  n; 
facere,  12.  avertere,  Aen.  i.  38;  submergere,  40;  premere,  63;  miscere,  134; 
petere,  158. 

Object:  d^ere,  5.  G.  i.  4,  i;  e^erre,  5,  3;  *re,  6,  3;  rescindi,  7,  2;  ire,  9,  4. 
hebescere,  Cat.  i.  4;  ewe,  4;  comprehendi,  5;  interfici,  12;  exire,  13.  volvere,  Aen. 
i.  9;  celerare,  357;  consistere,  541;  moliri,  564;  consistere,  629. 

Indirect  Discourse:  obtinere,  B.  G.  i.  i,  5;  ewe,  2,  2;  habere,  2,  5;  ewe,  3,  2, 
ewe,  3,  6.  pater  e,  Cat.  i.  i;  teneri,  i;  factum  esse,  5;  jactum  esse,  5;  dicer  e,  7. 
coluisse,  Aen.  \.  16;  dwa',  19;  misceri,  124;  />aft',  219;  /ore,  235. 

With  Adjectives:  decertare,  B.  G.  i.  44,  4;  iurare,  ii.  3,  3;  recipere,  3,  3;  facere, 
3,  3,  dare,  3,  3.  wm,  ylew.  iv.  564;  certare,  v.  108;  a'ere,  vi.  165;  accendere, 
165;  credere,  173. 

Exclamation:  desistere,  Aen.  i.  37;  /><wse,  38:  potuisse,  98. 

Historical:  flagitare,  B.  G.  i.  16,  i;  ducere,  16,  4;  dicere,  16,  4;  respondere, 
32,  3;  permanere,  32,  3.  terrere,  Aen.  ii.  98;  parari,  132;  /Zwere,  169;  trepidare, 
685;  fo//ere,  699. 

PURPOSE:  diffundere,  Aen.  i.  319;  audire,  373;  populare,  527;  C0&,  iii.  77; 
/erre,  v.  248. 

PARTICIPLES 

Present:  inopinantes,  B.  G.  i.  12,  3;  /2e«s,  20,  5;  succedentibus,  25,  6;  vem'- 
ew/e^,  25,  7;  venientes,  26,  3.  labefactantem,  Cat.  i.  3;  cupientem,  3;  studentem, 
3;  molientem,  5;  sentientem,  6.  dolens,  Aen.  i.  9;  metuens,  23;  seruans,  36; 
expirantem,  44;  volutans,  50. 

Perfect:  divisa,  B.  G.  i.  i,  i;  inductus,  2,  i;  adducti,  3,  i;  adducti,  3,  7; 
WM',  5,  4.  constrictam,  Cat.  i.  i;  inclusum,  4;  obsessus,  6;  dimisso,  10;  concitato, 
n.  laeso,  Aen.  i.  8;  posthabita,  16;  repostum,  26;  flammato,  50;  submersas,  69 


50  SYNTAX  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  LATIN 

FUTURE:  futuris,  Aen.  i.  210;  futuris,  429;  futuris,  504;  inspectura,  ii.  47; 
ventura,  125. 

Active  Periphrastic:  obtenturus  esset,  B.  G.  i.  3,  6;  portaturi  erant,  5,  3; 
sint  erepturi,  17,  4;  gesturi  essent,  iii.  9,  6.  es/  iturus,  Cat.  ii.  15;  sw«2  ducturi, 
23;  «/  habiturus,  24;  essem  dicturus,  Pomp.  17;  perfecturus  sit,  45.  dicturus  est, 
Aen.  iii.  154. 

Gerundive:  effeminandos,  B.  G.  i.  i,  3;  conficiendas,  3,  2;  conficiendas,  3,  3; 
iurandum,  3,  7;  subeunda,  5,  3.  habendi,  Cat.  i.  i;  deponendam,  4;  reprimendorum, 
7;  interficiendorum,  15;  neglegendas,  18.  volvendis,  Aen.  i.  269;  miranda,  494; 
tremendum,  ii.  199;  horrendos,  ii.  222;  videndam,  589. 

Passive  Periphrastic:  concedendum,  B.  G.  i.  7,  4;  expectandum,  n,  6;  timen- 
dum,  14,  2;  prospiciendum,  23,  i;  mmtf  perferendi,  32,  5.  m/  verendum,  Cat. 
i.  5;  es/  admirandum,  7;  habenda  est,  ii;  w/  periclitanda,  ii;  ferendum,  16. 
quaerendi,  Aen.  ii.  118;  litandum,  118;  temptanda,  176;  ducendum,  232;  oranda, 
232. 

GERUND 

Gerund:  bellandi,  B.  G.  i.  2,  4;  proficiscendum,  3,  i;  deliberandum,  7,  5; 
largiendum,  18,  4;  quaerendo,  18,  10.  custodiendum,  Cat.  i.  19;  vivendum,  29; 
credendo,  30;  impellendo,  ii.  8;  vigilandi,  22.  veniendi,  Aen.  i.  414;  fandi,  520; 
/awdo,  ii.  6;  visendi,  63;  fando,  81. 

SUPINE 

In  -um:  rogatum,  B.  G.  i.  ii,  2;  gratulatum,  30,  i;  postulatum,  31,  9;  questum, 
37,  2;  frumentatum,  iv.  32,  i.  salutatum,  Cat.  i.  10.  servitum,  Aen.  ii.  786; 
venatum,  iv.  117. 

IN  -u:  /ac/M,  5.  G.  i.  3,  6;  /ac/w,  iv.  30,  2.  /ac/w,  Ca/.  i.  29;  dz'c/w,  Pomp.  42; 
,  65.  z>is#,  ^4ew.  i.  in;  £/JC/M,  439;  <&c/w,  ii.  174;  (/j'dw,  680;  vww,  iii.  621. 


THE    SAME    EXAMPLES    IN    THEIR    ORDER    OF 
OCCURRENCE  IN  THE  TEXTS 

CAESAR  B.  G.  i1 


1,1 

Gallia 

2,  i     Messala 

3,  3     Orgetorix 

divisa 

regni 

sibi 

quarum 

inductus 

suscepit 

unam 

nobilitatis 

3,  4    annos 

incolunt 

civitati 

senatu 

aliam 

finibus 

occuparet 

tertiam 

copiis 

3,  5     tempore 

lingua 

exirent 

civitate 

1,2 

lingua 

2,  2     esse 

plebi 

institutis 

virtute 

conaretur 

se 

omnibus 

ei 

differunt 

praestarent 

3,  6    factu 

Aquitanis 

imperio 

esse 

Belgis 

potiri 

illis 

i,3 

horum 

2,3     eis 

perficere 

cultu 

natura 

obtenturus  esset 

provinciae 

continentur 

possent 

absunt 

dividit 

se 

ea 

monte 

illis 

effeminandos 

flumine 

3,  7     adducti 

pertinent 

2,  4    vagarentur 

iurandum 

Germanis 

finitimis 

regno 

Rhenum 

inferre 

Galliae 

incolunt 

bellandi 

sese 

bellum 

dolore 

potiri 

1,4 

Germanis 

2,  5     multitudine 

4,  i     Helvetiis 

contendunt 

se 

dicere 

finibus 

habere 

sequi 

i,5 

pars 

passuum 

cremaretur  t 

Gallos 

3,  i     rebus 

cremaretur 

obtinere 

adducti 

4,  2     causae 

dictum  est 

proficiscendum 

indicium 

flumine 

pertinerent  t 

4,  3     rem 

septentriones 

comparare 

exsequi 

1,6 

finibus 

itinere 

conaretur 

partem 

suppeteret 

hominum 

fluminis 

civitatibus 

agris 

septentrionem 

3,  2    conficiendas 

4,  4     consciverit 

i,7 

montes 

biennium 

5,  i    facere 

Oceani 

esse 

exeant  t 

2,  I 

is 

3,  3     conficiendas 

5,  2     arbitrati  sunt 

1  The  letter  t  after  a  word  indicates  that  a  question  of  tense  is  involved.     For 
abbreviations  and  numerical  references  see  footnote,  p.  33. 


SYNTAX  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  LATIN 


5,3 

se 

9,2 

his 

16,3 

frumento 

portaturi  erant 

possent 

16,  4 

ducere 

reditionis 

mittunt 

dicere 

spe 

impetrarent 

16,5 

vergobretum 

subeunda 

9,3 

cupiditate 

16,  6 

posset 

essent 

regni 

iis 

mensium 

9,4 

ire 

susceperit 

sibi 

maleficio 

17,3 

possint 

efferre 

10,2 

periculo 

17,4 

Haeduis 

5,4 

Rauracis 

haberet 

sint 

usi 

io,3 

munitioni 

17,6 

potuerit 

consilio 

erat 

18,3 

rerum 

oppidis 

10,5 

die 

annos 

6,1 

possent  t 

n,  i 

Aeduorum 

pretio 

possent 

11,2 

possent 

18,4 

largiendum 

6,2 

multo 

rogatum 

18,  6 

domi 

6,3 

finibus 

n,3 

tempore 

causa 

Allobrogibus 

debuerit  t 

18,7 

matre 

animo 

11,4 

tempore 

18,  9 

accidat 

ire 

n,5 

sibi 

18,  10 

quaerendo 

paterentur 

11,6 

expectandum 

19,2 

offenderet 

6,4 

rebus 

sibi 

19,3 

conaretur 

die 

pervenirent 

20,  I 

lacrimis 

7,  i 

Caesari 

12,  I 

lenitati 

20,  2 

domi 

nuntiatum  esset 

12,3 

inopinantes 

20,3 

opibus 

7,2 

Gallia 

12,5 

exisset 

20,4 

teneret 

rescind! 

12,6 

populo 

20,5 

flens 

7,3 

facti  sunt 

13,1 

posset 

tanti 

dicerent  t 

13,4 

reminisceretur 

condonet 

dicerent 

INCOMMODI 

20,  6 

agat 

animo 

VIRTUTIS 

loquatur 

maleficio 

13,5 

adortus  esset 

21,  I 

cognoscerent 

facere 

possent 

21,  2 

sit 

eius 

14,  1 

eo 

21,4 

rei 

sibi 

14,  2 

iniuriae 

22,1 

passibus 

facere 

sibi 

22,3 

subducit 

liceat 

se 

23,1 

prospiciendum 

7,4 

concedendum 

timendum 

24,  I 

sustineret 

animo 

14,3 

CONTUMELIAE 

24,  2 

legionum 

itineris 

14,4 

victoria 

25,3 

sinistra 

7,5 

posset 

gloriarentur 

25,6 

succedentibus 

convenirent 

14,5 

quo 

praesidio 

deliberandum 

scelere 

25,7 

venientes 

reverterentur 

14,6 

sint 

26,  I 

proelio 

8,1 

milia 

iis 

26,    2 

pugnatum  sit  t 

pedum 

dentur 

pugnatum  sit 

8,2 

quo 

satisfaciant 

26,3 

venientes 

8,3 

legatis 

14,7 

maioribus 

26,  4 

impedimentis 

venit 

consuerint  t 

27,4 

dediticiorum 

conentur 

15,3 

equitum 

28,1 

sibi 

8,4 

fluminis 

15,5 

dies 

28,3 

domi 

erat 

16,  i 

frumentum 

tolerarent 

9,i 

angustias 

flagitare 

28,4 

Galliae 

EXAMPLES  IN  ORDER  OF  OCCURRENCE 


53 


28, 

5 

virtute 

34, 

a 

ipsi 

40, 

4 

desperarent 

30, 

i 

gratulatum 

35, 

2 

referret 

40, 

6 

haberet 

30, 

a 

repetissent 

sibi 

40, 

12 

nihil 

3°, 

3 

domicilio 

35, 

3 

hominum 

42, 

I 

accessisset 

3°, 

5 

concilio 

35, 

4 

sibi 

42, 

4 

circumveniretur 

3i, 

4 

arcesserentur 

censuisset 

43, 

5 

haberet 

3i, 

9 

postulatum 

36, 

3 

superati  essent 

43, 

7 

appetissent 

3i, 

12 

vicerit 

36, 

4 

sibi 

44, 

4 

decertare 

3i, 

14 

Gallis 

36, 

7 

congrederetur 

44, 

8 

vellet 

3i, 

^5 

sumat 

37, 

a 

questum 

veniret 

32, 

2 

Caesar 

38, 

5 

intennittit 

44, 

9 

rerum 

32, 

3 

respondere 

altitudine 

sciret 

permanere 

39, 

i 

dies 

46, 

3 

videbat 

32, 

4 

ADESSET 

magnitudine 

48, 

i 

promovit 

32, 

5 

Sequanis 

perturbaret 

48, 

a 

eum 

perferendi 

39, 

a 

tribunis 

48, 

6 

erat 

33, 

i. 

curae 

causa 

deciderat 

33, 

a 

sibi 

39, 

3 

sibi 

48, 

7 

erat 

33, 

4 

exirent 

39, 

6 

posset 

49, 

3 

perterrerent 

33, 

5 

videretur 

40, 

i 

ducerentur 

52, 

5 

insilirent 

34, 

i 

postularent 

40, 

a 

iudicaret 

53, 

i 

pervenerunt 

colloquio 

40, 

4 

vererentur 

53, 

6 

videbat 

CAESAR  B.  G.  ii 

i, 

,i 

demonstravimus 

5, 

•a 

salutis 

20, 

3 

vetuerat 

i, 

2 

adduceretur 

5, 

4 

Axonam 

21, 

5 

defuerit  t 

2, 

3 

gerantur 

5, 

6 

pedum 

25, 

i 

posset 

3, 

i 

opinione 

'    6, 

2 

hominum 

26, 

2 

circumvenirentur 

3, 

3 

dare 

6, 

3 

nulli 

29, 

I 

venirent 

facere 

8, 

a 

patebat 

29, 

4 

Cimbris 

recipere 

10, 

i 

pontem 

3°, 

4 

magnitudine 

iuvare 

ii, 

5 

viderentur 

32, 

I 

attigisset 

4, 

2 

Germanis 

continerentur 

33, 

2 

postulabat 

5, 

2 

rei 

CAESAR  B.  G,  iii 

i, 

3 

arbitraretur 

9> 

6 

acciderent 

18, 

7 

sit  concessum 

4, 

3 

excedebant 

gesturi  essent 

22, 

i 

soldurios 

9, 

2 

potuit 

ii, 

5 

posset 

22, 

3 

recusaret 

9, 

3 

retentos 

12, 

i 

modi 

24, 

a 

existimabant 

coniectos 

afflictarentur 

28, 

i 

exacta  erat 

multum 

12, 

2 

coeperant 

essent 

CAESAR  B.  G.  iv 

i, 

5 

domi 

7, 

3 

resistere 

21, 

7 

regem 

domi 

deprecari 

magni 

i, 

7 

anno 

ii, 

6 

lacesserent 

25, 

3 

desilite 

i, 

8 

multum 

sustinerent 

milites 

maximam  partem 

accessisset 

26, 

5 

constiterunt 

2, 

2 

pretio 

12, 

5 

potuit 

27, 

i 

receperunt 

3, 

3 

ceteris 

13, 

4 

legatis 

3°, 

2 

FACTU 

multum 

16, 

6 

Rhenum 

32, 

I 

frumentatum 

Si 

3 

QUORUM 

17, 

2 

proponebatur 

6, 

3 

missas 

20, 

I 

vergit 

54 


SYNTAX  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  LATIN 


CICERO  CAT.  i 


i     abutere 

3     manu 

6     sentientem 

Catilina 

occidit 

fecerunt 

patientia 

re  publica 

exspectes  t 

furor 

suppliciis 

exspectes 

nos 

coercerent 

muta 

eludet 

Catilina 

mihi 

finem 

4    videret 

crede 

sese 

quid 

obliviscere 

iactabit 

detriment! 

CAEDIS 

nihil 

seditionum 

INCENDIORUM 

te 

patre 

luce 

Palati 

diem 

me 

urbis 

diem 

7     dicere 

populi 

hebescere 

die 

bonorum 

modi 

est  admirandum 

habendi 

inclusum 

optumatium 

senatus 

tabulis 

Roma 

horum 

interfectum  esse 

reprimendorum 

moverunt 

Catilina 

discessu 

patere 

convenit 

8     Kalendis 

consilia 

deponendam 

confideres  t 

sentis 

patres 

confideres 

constrictam 

esse 

audiam 

scientia 

periculis 

recognosce 

teneri 

inertiae 

me 

coniurationem 

nequitiae 

nocte 

quid 

castra 

negare 

egeris 

Italia 

te 

fueris 

faucibus 

fuerunt 

consili 

castrorum 

9     gentium 

quern 

hostium 

urbis 

nostrum 

rei  publicae 

cogitent  t 

2    tempora 

molientem 

cogitent 

mores 

comprehend! 

trucidare 

senatum 

iussero 

oportebat 

consili 

erit  verendum 

nocte 

nostrum 

mihi 

proficisci 

mortem 

me 

te 

te 

f  actum  esse 

cura 

Catilina 

dicat 

10     coetu 

duci 

factum  esse 

dimisso 

te 

oportuit 

salutatum 

pestem 

factum  esse 

venissent  t 

nos 

fateatur 

sint 

machinaris 

6     erit 

perge 

3    labefactantem 

defendere 

coepisti 

caede 

audeat 

urbe 

vastare 

vivis 

te 

cupientem 

praesidiis 

metu 

rebus 

obsessus 

intersit 

studentem 

possis 

ii     dis 

EXAMPLES  IN  ORDER  OF  OCCURRENCE 


55 


II 

habenda  est 

1  6     ferendum 

22 

is 

lovi 

17     pacto 

revocarit 

effugimus 

metuerent 

23 

feceris 

est  periclitanda 

metuunt 

ieris 

mihi 

tibi 

laudi 

insidiatus  es 

viderem 

me 

interficere 

conscientia 

videaris 

voluisti 

agnoscas 

24 

quid 

amicorum 

timerent 

sciam 

tumultu 

ratione 

praestolarentur 

concitato 

opinor 

cui 

petisti 

18    modo 

sciam 

tibi 

te 

tibi 

videbam 

tibi 

tuis 

12 

imperi 

neglegendas 

cui 

facere 

fuerunt 

sciam 

audeo 

increpuerit 

26 

laetitia 

interfici 

opprimar 

gaudiis 

iussero 

desinam 

iacere 

coniuratorum 

19     loquatur 

vigilare 

exieris 

possit 

27 

posses 

urbe 

dedisti 

nominaretur 

13 

me 

causa 

mihi 

exire 

dixisti 

vita 

consulis 

quo 

28 

morte 

possit  t 

domi 

commendatione 

possit 

adservarem 

neglegis 

vitae 

essem 

29 

est 

adulescentulo 

contineremur 

ego 

14 

nuptiis 

quo 

FACTU 

videantur 

custodiendum 

iudicarem 

15 

tibi 

dignum 

morte 

scias 

custodia 

multari 

Lepido 

20     animo 

vivendum 

interficiendorum 

potes 

redundaret 

causa 

decreverit 

animo 

sceleri 

intellegas 

gloriam 

viderentur 

sentiant 

putarem 

16 

tibi 

quid 

'  3° 

credendo 

te 

ecquid 

pervenerit 

sit 

21     adulescenti 

fateatur 

videar 

viro 

hoc 

tibi 

dixissem 

31 

homines 

contigit 

22     quid 

biberunt 

sis 

nobis 

32 

secedant 

vacuefacta  sunt 

memoria 

congregentur 

tibi 

impendeat 

secernantur 

adsedisti 

tanti 

domi 

reliquerunt 

sit 

sit  inscriptum 

animo 

commoveare 

tibi 

temporibus 

SYNTAX  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  LATIN 


CICERO  CAT.  ii 


2 

extulit 

10     insidiari 

18 

his 

egressus  est 

12     iussus  est 

19 

premuntur 

ei 

civem 

rerum 

4 

morte 

hostem 

20 

delectantur 

multasse.m 

13     haesitaret 

velint 

possem 

teneretur 

22 

Catilinae 

EDUXISSET 

scirem 

capillo 

aere 

15     tanti 

vigilandi 

5 

legionibus 

depellatur 

23 

perierit 

mallem 

eat 

sunt  ducturi 

6 

Catilinae 

est  iturus 

24 

sit  habiturus 

lenitati 

audiatis 

25 

deficiant 

exeant 

sit 

26 

sint 

7 

rem  publicam 

sint 

urbi 

annos 

sint  t 

motu 

illo 

16     malit 

esset 

8 

impellendo 

OPTEMUS 

27 

sunt 

Romae 

eat 

his 

9 

consumeret 

QUERAMUR 

portis 

10 

nos 

17     Romae 

viae 

rem  publicam 

2  nobis 

3  diebus 
erupit 

4  vidi 
faceret 
videretis 
comperi 

5  PRAECLARA 
EGREGIA 

sentirent 
opera 
7    placeret 


CICERO  CAT.  iii 

8    esset 
efferret 
sciret 
praesidio 
incendissent 
fecisset 


exciperet 
10     sit  t 
Cethego 
respondisset 
dixisset 


10  ferramentorum 

11  vellet 
posset 

1 6  continebatur 

17  sit  inventum  t 

19  flexissent 

20  dies 

21  neget 

22  dicam 

25  diiudicatae  sint  t 

29  est  depulsum 


CICERO  CAT.  iv 


I 

SALUTIS 

II 

me 

17 

multo 

pariatur 

oculos 

18 

sint 

2 

laeter 

12 

lenierit 

20 

redeo 

3 

movear 

13 

vereamini 

FACTORUM 

5 

me 

videamini 

CONSILIORUM 

6 

noctem 

multo 

21 

sit 

opinione  • 

14 

habeam 

ornetur 

7 

morte 

ordinum 

habeatur 

punctum 

15 

commemorem 

sit 

8 

inferos 

16 

sit 

anteponatur 

9 

mea 

17 

tabernas 

22 

possis 

EXAMPLES  IN  ORDER  OF  OCCURRENCE 


57 


I     multo 

6     modi 

10     multo 

videantur  t 

13  defendant 

14  ubertate 

15  facta  est 

16  fructui 

17  essem  dicturus 
curae 

parvi 

19     Romae 
22     persequeretur 

26  potuisset 

27  genere 
magnitudine 

HABERETIS 


CICERO  POMP. 

27  virtute 

28  homine 
civitatibus 
nationibus 

31  arbitraretur 

32  praesidio 
querar 
dicam 

33  audiatis  t 

36      CONSIDEREMUS 

39    dicatur  t 

42  DICTU 

transmittendum 
sit 

43  possit 

44  gentium 
sumantur 


45  perfecturus  sit 

48  sit 

49  conferatis 
54  permanserit  t 

58  deberet  t 

59  eo 

62  licuisset 

63  praeponeretis 

64  sunt 

65  DICTU 
inferatur 

66  disputarem 
habetis 

67  VIDEAMUS 

68  nolite  dubitare 
credatis 


1  temporis 
saluti 

2  miretur  t 

3  hominum 


1  anna 
cano 
Troiae 

2  Italiam 
fato 

3  litora 
multum 
terris 
alto 

4  vi 
superum 
lunonis 

5  urbem 

6  deos 
LATIO 

7  Romae 

8  mihi 
causas 
laeso 

9  dolens 
deum 
volvere 

1 1  animis 

12  urbs 
fuit 


CICERO  ARCH. 

3  modi 

13  studiis 

14  parvi 

15  valuisse 

VERGIL  AEN.  \ 


1 8     doctrina 
sanctos 

25  duxerit  t 

26  QUIDDAM 


14 

opum 

33 

condere 

belli 

34 

altum 

15 

quam 

35 

aere 

terris 

36 

luno 

i6 

posthabita 

servans 

coluisse 

37 

se 

Samo 

me 

17 

hoc 

incepto 

gentibus 

desistere 

19 

progeniem 

38 

posse 

duci 

avertere 

21 

populum 

39 

fatis 

bello 

40 

submergere 

22 

excidio 

ponto 

Parcas 

43 

ventis 

23 

metuens 

44 

expirantem 

24 

Argis 

45 

turbine 

26 

animo 

scopulo 

repostum 

47 

gente 

27 

formae 

annos 

29 

aequore 

49 

aris 

31 

Latio 

50 

flammato 

annos 

se 

32 

fatis 

corde 

33 

molis 

volutans 

SYNTAX  OF  HIGH- SCHOOL  LATIN 


51 

patriam 

132 

generis 

301 

alarum 

55 

murmure 

133 

numine 

313 

ferro 

59 

ferant 

134 

miscere 

314 

cui 

se 

135 

componere 

317 

fuga 

63 

premere 

137 

regi 

319 

DIFFUNDERE 

sciret 

138 

pelagi 

320 

GENU 

64 

vocibus 

140 

Eure 

322 

sororum 

65 

Aeole 

iactet 

325 

Venus 

tibi 

141 

regnet 

326 

mihi 

67 

mihi 

142 

dicto 

sororum 

68 

Italiam 

I52 

conspexere 

328 

HOMINEM 

69 

incute 

156 

flectit 

329 

sanguinis 

ventis 

158 

petere 

332 

iactemur  t 

submersas 

164 

silvis 

335 

honore 

obrue 

166 

scopulis 

336 

virginibus 

70 

age 

167 

saxo 

339 

bello 

disice 

171 

telluris 

34i 

iniuria 

7i 

mihi 

172 

harena 

343 

huic 

corpore 

174 

primum 

auri 

72 

forma 

178 

rerum 

349 

amore 

73 

conubio 

182 

videat  t 

357 

celerare 

74 

meritis 

189 

primum 

359 

argenti 

75 

exigat 

193 

fundat  t 

361 

quibus 

parentem 

humi 

373 

AUDIRE 

76 

Aeolus 

navibus 

376 

iit 

regina 

203 

meminisse 

377 

ORIS 

77 

explorare 

207 

rebus 

385 

PLURA 

capessere 

210 

praedae 

387 

caelestibus 

78 

mihi 

FUTURIS 

.        389 

perfer 

regni 

215 

bacchi 

392 

docuere 

81 

cuspide 

ferinae 

397 

ludunt 

82 

agmine 

216 

exempta 

398 

cinxere 

83 

data 

218 

credant  t 

402 

dixit 

turbine 

219 

pati 

407 

quid 

84 

mari 

228 

OCULOS 

4i3 

posset 

89 

ponto 

232 

quibus 

414 

veniendi 

92 

Aeneae 

235 

fore 

425 

tecto 

96 

oppetere 

241 

rex 

429 

FUTURIS 

gentis 

251 

infandum 

43° 

aestate 

98 

potuisse 

257 

metu 

439 

mirabile 

IO2 

iactanti 

Cytherea 

DICTU 

IO4 

undis 

261 

remordet 

440 

ulli 

105 

cumulo 

269 

volvendis 

441 

umbrae 

aquae 

mensibus 

445 

saecula 

106 

his 

272 

annos 

458 

ambobus 

109 

aras 

279 

fine 

469 

velis 

in 

miserabile 

286 

nascetur 

470 

somno 

VISU 

origine 

484 

auro 

112 

harenae 

289 

CAELO 

494 

miranda 

122 

compagibus 

297 

Maia 

504 

FUTURIS 

I23 

rimis 

298 

pateant  t 

514 

laetitia 

124 

misceri 

pateant 

520 

introgressi 

EXAMPLES  IN  ORDER  OF  OCCURRENCE 


59 


520 

fandi 

576 

ADFORET 

668 

iactetur 

526 

generi 

579 

ANIMUM 

669 

dolore 

527 

POPULARE 

582 

dea 

671 

vertant 

538 

ORIS 

584 

vidimus 

672 

cardine 

541 

consistere 

589 

OS 

683 

noctem 

544 

quo 

deo 

688 

inspires 

546 

servant 

601 

opis 

689 

dictis 

vescitur 

605 

FERANT 

695 

dicto 

aura 

613 

aspectu 

704 

struere 

549 

paeniteat 

616 

ORIS 

706 

onerent 

55i 

liceat 

623 

mihi 

ponant 

554 

petamus 

629 

consistere 

723 

remotae 

564 

moliri 

644 

praemittit 

733 

VELIS 

565 

nesciat 

651 

peteret 

745 

tantum 

574 

mihi 

659 

Ascanio 

750 

MULTA 

VERGIL  "AEN.  ii 


5 

vidi 

J43 

LABORUM 

350 

sequi 

6 

fui 

144 

ANIMI 

354 

sperare 

fando 

160 

MANEAS 

362 

explicet 

8 

temperet 

SERVES 

possit 

10 

cognoscere 

169 

fluere 

380 

PRESSIT 

22 

manebant 

174 

DICTU 

humi 

47 

INSPECTURA 

176 

temptanda 

388 

SEQUAMUR 

48 

equo 

178 

repetant 

39° 

requirat 

NE  CREDITE 

reducat 

417 

CONFLIGUNT 

54 

fuisset 

184 

piaret 

439 

FORENT 

57 

MANUS 

189 

violasset 

MORERENTUR 

61 

obtulerat 

191 

convertant 

45i 

succurrere 

63 

visendi 

192 

ascendisset 

455 

manebant 

79 

miserum 

199 

multo 

522 

adforet  t 

81 

fando 

tremendum 

adforet 

pervenit 

216 

auxilio 

533 

tenetur 

84 

vetabat 

219 

capite 

536 

curet 

85 

demisere 

cervicibus 

584 

est 

88 

stabat 

222 

horrendos 

habet 

91 

concessit 

231 

laeserit  t 

589 

videndam 

94 

tulisset 

laeserit 

599 

resistat 

95 

remeassem 

intorserit  t 

607 

NE  TIME 

98 

terrere 

intorserit 

NEU  RECUSA 

104 

magno 

232 

ducendum 

653 

vellet 

no 

FECISSENT 

oranda 

665 

eripis 

H3 

staret 

248 

esset 

667 

cernam  t 

118 

quaerendi 

268 

quo 

680 

DICTU 

litandum 

292 

possent 

685 

trepidare 

125 

VENTURA 

300 

recessit 

699 

tollere 

132 

parari 

305 

INCIDIT 

711 

sit 

136 

dedissent 

342 

diebus 

743 

venimus 

J39 

poenas 

346 

audierit  t 

773 

nota 

142 

restet 

audierit 

786 

servitum 

6o 


SYNTAX  OF  HIGH-SCHOOL  LATIN 


VERGIL   AEN.  in 


36 

secundarent 

162 

Cretae 

456 

adeas 

levarent 

188 

SEQUAMUR 

poscas 

49 

auri 

214 

illis 

461 

liceat 

diffideret 

224 

dapibus 

478 

praeterlabare 

55 

auro 

236 

iussi 

501 

intraro 

77 

COLI 

257 

subigat 

533 

euroo 

H4 

SEQUAMUR 

262 

sint 

605 

spargite 

IZ5 

PETAMUS 

309 

tempore 

615 

MANSISSET 

116 

cursu 

316 

NE  DUBITA 

621 

VISU 

adsit 

334 

Chaonios 

625 

frangeret 

129 

PETAMUS 

387 

possis 

627 

manderet 

154 

dicturus  est 

453 

tanti 

629 

SUI 

160 

NE  LINQUE 

VERGIL    AEN.  iv 

18 

THALAMI 

292 

speret 

483 

gentis 

24 

optem 

315 

reliqui 

488 

velit 

dehiscat 

318 

DOMUS 

497 

IMPONAS 

25 

abigat 

324 

restat 

523 

terras 

27 

violo 

335 

ELISSAE 

536 

sim  dedignata 

36 

Libyae 

349 

considere 

538 

iuvat 

39 

consederis 

356 

love 

564 

mori 

5° 

veniam 

'  357 

auras 

568 

attigerit 

61 

cornua 

377 

love 

578 

ADSIS 

71 

nemora 

394 

cupit 

603 

fuisset 

109 

sequatur 

401 

cernas 

604 

TULISSEM 

117 

venatum 

432 

careat 

605 

IMPLESSEM 

125 

certae 

435 

SORORIS 

606 

EXTINXEM 

altaria 

452 

peragat  t 

DEDISSEM 

182 

mirabile 

relinquat  t 

615 

populi 

221 

FAMAE 

454 

horrendum 

651 

sinebant 

267 

REGNI 

468 

VIAM 

678 

VOCASSES 

RERUM 

479 

reddat 

VERGIL  AEN.  v 

4 

accenderit 

78 

humi 

542 

deiecit 

6 

possit 

108 

certare 

frangeret 

12 

Jr 

puppi 

174 

sui 

624 

traxerit 

18 

spondeat 

245 

victorem 

796 

liceat 

ig 

vespere 

248 

FERRE 

810 

cuperem 

25 

remetior 

415 

dabat 

862 

ITER 

65 

extulerit 

486 

velint 

VERGIL    AEN.  vi 

39 

praestiterit 

394 

geniti 

694 

nocerent 

141 

decerpserit 

invicti  essent 

759 

fata 

165 

ciere 

430 

mortis 

761 

lucis 

accendere 

436 

vellent 

770 

acceperit 

I73 

credere 

534 

adires  t 

802 

fixerit 

188 

OSTENDAT 

591 

simularet 

803 

pacarit 

200 

possent 

621 

auro 

tremefecerit 

354 

deficeret 

622 

pretio 

822 

ferent 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 

This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below. 


LD  21-100m-12,'46(A2012sl6)4120 


YC  55007 


ITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


